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AgricuftupaS  College. 

CLASS  NO     G.1  i.4p..^!.a. 

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DATE i4l?:x.J.L I9i.a.. 


V 


BOOK    62  1.4.P98    c   1 

PUTNAM  #  GASOLINE  ENGINE  ON  FARM 


3  T1S3  00D2231S  fl 


cn.f 


THE 

GASOLINE  ENGINE 

ON  THE  FARM 


A  Practical,  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  the 

Construction,  Repair,  Management  and  Use  of  this 

Great  Farm  Power  as  Applied  to  All  Farm  Machinery 

and  the  Farmer  s  Work  Indoors  and  Out 

THIS    TREATISE,    BECAUSE    OF    THE    SIMPLE,    NOX-TECHNICAL    EXPOSITION 

OF    MECHANICAL    PRINCIPLES,    IS    ESPECIALLY    VALUABLE    TO    THOSE 

WITHOUT    PREVIOUS    MECHANICAL    KNOWLEDGE    WHO    WISH    TO 

BECOME     THOROUGHLY     FAMILIAR    WITH     THE     OPERATION 

AND    CARE    OF    GASOLINE    ENGINES,    TRACTORS 

AND    AUXILIARY    DEVICES. 

THIS   IS    A   COMPLETE   WORKER'S    HAND     BOOK    ON    THE     INTERNAL   COMBUSTION    MOTOR 

AND   ITS    MANY    APPLICATIONS    IN    MODERN,  FARM    LIFE.       CONSIDERS     ALL     THE 

HOUSEHOLD,  SHOP  AND    FIELD    USES    OF  THIS  UP-TO-DATE    PRIME  MOVER 

AND     INCLUDES    CHAPTERS     ON    ENGINE     INSTALLATION,    POWER 

TRANSMISSION,  AND    THE     BEST    ARRANGEMENT    OF  THE 

POWER  PLANT  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  THE  WORK. 

By  XENO  W.  PUTNAM 


Fnlhj  lUtisirated  by  179  Carefully  Selected  Engravings  of  great  value  to  all 
interested  in  the  efficient  (ind  economical  applictition  of  farm  power. 


NEW  YORK 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

132  NASSAU  STREET 

19L3 


r:4 


Copyright,  1913,  by 
THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


I  Xill 


Composition,  Electrotyping  and  Printing 
By  J.  J.  Little  &  Ives  Co.,  New  York. 


PREFACE 

It  requires  the  theorist's  careful  study  to  develop  new 
inventions,  even  though  accident  may  have  first  sug- 
gested them.  It  remains  for  the  practical  workman  to 
adapt  something  that  may  have  only  great  academic 
interest  in  practical  work  and  thus  obtain  results  that 
make  the  new  discovery  of  world-wide  value.  The  for- 
mulae of  philosophy  are  needed  among  engineers  and 
scientists  and  should  not  be  discredited  or  valued  too 
lightly,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  workmen  who  apply 
the  theory  to  practice  require  only  the  every-day  lan- 
guage of  the  field  in  an  exposition  designed  for  their 
instruction. 

The  gasoline  engine  was,  until  recently,  but  a  theory; 
it  is  now  a  completed  fact  and  has  been  turned  over  to 
the  result  getter.  It  is  doing  the  world's  work  every- 
where. In  many  industries  it  is  taking  the  place  of 
other  forms  of  power,  but  it  is  just  entering  into  a  mis- 
sion upon  the  farm  that  has  heretofore  been  unfilled. 

With  the  coming  of  a  prime  mover  that  is  really  ap- 
plicable to  the  peculiar  conditions  surrounding  the  farm- 
er's work,  there  comes  a  demand  for  men  trained  for 
the  opportunity,  capable  of  making  the  most  out  of  that 
which  was  yesterday  a  dream  and  is  to-day  an  achieve- 
ment. The  problems  of  the  engine  and  its  management 
will  face  the  farmer  of  the  future  with  the  same  impera- 
tive demand  for  their  solution  that  now  obtains  regarding 
those  incidental  to  the  intelligent  care  and  control  of 
his  live  stock  and  agricultural  machinery.  They  are 
facing  him  now  and  will  continue  to  confront  him  until 

V 


vi  Preface 

he  solves  them  and  wins  for  human  inteUigence  another 
triumph  of  magnitude. 

This  volume  is  intended  for  the  workmen  of  the  farm, 
to  assist  them  in  meeting  a  new  condition ;  because  of 
this  purpose  all  technical  statements  of  the  laws  of  phi- 
losophy and  exact  science  have  been  discarded  wherever 
possible  for  simpler  language  and  expression  intelligi- 
ble to  those  needing  the  information. 

The  Author. 

January,   1913. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The  Author  desires  to  acknowledge  his  appreciation  of  the 
valuable  assistance  received  from  many  of  the  leading  firms  in 
the  field  of  gasoline  engine  manufacture  and  associated  indus- 
tries. The  illustrations,  for  the  most  part,  have  been  furnished 
by  progressive  manufacturers  whose  publicity  efforts  and  excel- 
lent product  have  done  so  much  to  popularize  the  gasoline  farm 
engine  and  tractor,  and  many  valuable  suggestions  regarding 
treatment  of  the  subject  have  been  obtained  from  the  literature 
cheerfully  supplied.  The  following  list  of  firms  contributed  ma- 
terially to  making  this  work  complete  and  of  value : 

U.   S.   Dept.  of  Agriculture,   Washington,   D.    C 
--  Rumely   Products   Co.,   LaPorte,   Ind. 

The    Gas    Tractor    Co.,    Minneapolis,    ]\Iinn. 

The   Avery  Company,   Peoria,   Illinois. 

The  Hart-Parr  Co.,  Charles  City,  Iowa. 

Jacobson   Machine   Mfg.    Co.,  Warren,    Pa. 

S.   F.  Bowser  &  Co!,   Ft.  Wayne,  Ind. 

Robert  Instrument  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Brown   Clutch    Company,    Sandusky,   Ohio. 

Kinnard-Haines    Co.,   ]\Iinneapolis,   Minn. 

Austin    Mfg.    Co.,    Chicago,    Illinois. 

Termaat  &   ]\Ionahan   Co.,    Oshkosh,   Wis. 

C.   F.   Splitdorf   Co.,   New  York   City. 

Packard   Electric   Co.,    Warren,   Ohio. 

Electric   Storage   Battery   Co.,    Phila. 

Altorfer  Bros.   Co.,  Chicago,   111. 
— -International    Harvester  Company,    Chicago,   111. 
—The   "New   Way"    Motor   Co.,    Lansing,   Mich. 

The  J.  I.  Case  Company,  Racine,  Wis. 

"Sta-Rite"    Engine    Co.,    LaCrosse,   Wis. 

The   Bates   Tractor   Co.,   Lansing,  Mich. 
—  New   Holland   Mch.    Co.,   New_  Holland,    Pa. 

Detroit  Lubricator   Co.,   Detroit,    Mich. 

Aultman   Taylor   Co.,   Mansfield,    Ohio. 

Bates  &  Edmonds   Motor  Co.,   Lansing,   Mich. 

Reeves    Pulley    Co.,    Columbus,    Ind. 

The   Heald  Mch.    Co.,   Worcester,   Mass. 

Bosch  Magneto  Co.,  New  York  City. 
'     Gray  Motor  Co.,  Detroit,   Michigan. 

Cushmann   Motor  Works,  Lincoln,   Nebr. 

Automatic     Cream    Separator    Co.,    Milwaukee. 

The    Deming   Company,    Salem,    Ohio. 

The  Coldwell  Lawn  Mower  Co.,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 
vii 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

(The   figures   refer   to   Paragraphs) 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   CALL  AND   THE  ANSWER 

I.  The  Great  Farm  Problem — 2.  The  Machine  Designer's 
Problem— 3.  The  Call  of  the  Farm— 4.  Where  Farm 
Power  Fails— 5.  The  Ideal  Farm  Power— 6.  The 
One  Best  Answer — 7.  The  Gasoline  Engine  in  the  Field 
— 8.  As  General  Utility  Man — 9.  In  the  Kitchen — 10. 
With  the  Boy— II.  The  Hired  Man  Problem— 12.  The 
Greatest  Mission  of  All 33 

CHAPTER    II 

THE    INTERNAL    COMBUSTION    ENGINE 

13.  The  Principle— 14.  The  First  Engine— 15.  Other  At- 
tempts— 16.  The  First  Success— 17.  What  Internal  Com- 
bustion Includes — 18.  The  Real  Source  of  Power — 
19.  The  Complete  Cycle — 20.  The  Four-Cycle  Engine — 
21.  The  Two-Cycle  Engine — 22.  Where  the  Four-Cycle 
Excels — 23.  Six  and  Eight-Cycle  Engines — 24.  The  Vital 
Parts — 25.  The  Necessary  Trimmings — 26.  Necessary 
Conveniences — 27.     Types   of   Engines     ...      42 

CHAPTER    III 

THE    COMBUSTION    CHAMBER 

28.   Functions   of  the   Cylinder — 29.  What   It   Determines — 
30.   Best  Material — 31.  The   Foundry  Work — 32.  Boring 
ix 


Table  of  Contents 

the  Cylinder — 33.  As  Combustion  Chamber — 34.  What 
Compression  Is — 35.  What  It  AccompHshes  in  the  En- 
gine— 36.  How  the  Charge  Is  Compressed — 37.  Com- 
pression Limits — 38.  Where  Higher  Compression  Is 
Useful — 39.  Compression  Gains  and  Losses — 40.  Clear- 
ance— 41.  Faulty  Compression — 42.  Testing  Compression 
— 43.  Decreasing  Clearance — 44.  Increasing  Power 
Through  Clearance — 45.  Lubricating  the  Cylinder — 46. 
Carbon  and  Its  Effects — 47.  Symptoms  of  Carbon — 48. 
Cleaning  the  Cylinder — 49.  Removing  the  Cylinder — 50. 
Re-assembling — 51.  Packing  the  Cylinder  Head — 52. 
Material  to  Employ — 53.  Cleaning  Without  Remov- 
ing    51 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE   PISTON   AND    ITS    AUXILIARY    PARTS 

54.  Functions  of  Piston — 55.  Construction  of  Piston — 56. 
Best  Material — 57.  Design  and  Workmanship — 58.  The 
Rings — 59.  Their  Construction — 60.  Material  for  Rings — 
61.  Making  the  Ring— 62.  Truing  the  Ring— 63.  A  Few 
Piston  and  Ring  Diseases  and  Their  Remedy — 64.  The 
Dirt  Menace — 65.  Cleaning  Piston  and  Rings — 66.  Re- 
moving the  Rings — 67.  Returning  Rings— 68.  The  Piston 
Pin — 69.  The  Connecting  Rod — 70.  Crank-shaft  and 
Connecting-rod  Lubrication — 71.  Repairs  and  Care — 
72.    Other  Troubles — 73.    Hints  and  Suggestions     .      72 

CHAPTER    V 

THE  PORT  AND  VALVE  SYSTEM 

74.  Subject  to  Rough  Treatment— 75.  What  It  Includes— 
76.  The  Intake  Port— 77.  Size  of  Intake  Port— 78.  Com- 
mon Troubles— 79.  Faulty  Valve  Seating— 80.  Effect  of 
Bad  Air— 81.  Leak-hunting— 82.  Fuel  Required  in  New 
Engine— 83.  The  Exhaust  Port— 84.  Inspecting  the 
System— 85.  Valve  Timing— How  to  Determine  and 
Correct— 86.  The  Object  of  Valve  Timing— 87.  Testing 


Table  of  Contents  xi 

and  Setting  the  Intake  Valve — 88.  The  Exhaust  Valve 
— 89.  Some  General  Rules — 90.  Valve-grinding — 91.  The 
Muffler;  Its  Use  and  Abuse — 92.  A  Word  of  Caution — 
93.     Valve  Vagaries 85 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE    CARBURETOR 

94.  The  Heart  of  the  Engine— 95.  Carburetors  to  Be  Let 
Alone — 96.  The  Real  Engine  Fuel — 97.  Unvarying  Ad- 
justment Impossible — 98.  Variation  of  Fuel  and  Re- 
quirements— 99,  How  the  Carburetor  Vaporizes — 
100.  Mixing  Air  with  Gasoline — loi.  Automatic  Car- 
buretors—102.  Effect  of  Impure  Air— 103.  Carburetor 
Troubles  and  Their  Cure — 104.  Barking — 105.  Misfir- 
ing— 106,  Backfiring — 107.  Flooding — 108.  Priming  the 
Carburetor — 109.  Size  of  Carburetor — no.  Adjusting  the 
Carburetor — in.  Adjusting  the  Float  Valve — 112.  Mis- 
cellaneous  Hints 99 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE    IGNITION    SYSTEM 

113.  Special  Difficulties — 114.  Effect  of  Failure — 115.  Open 
Flame  Method — 116.  Hot  Tube  Ignition — 117.  Compres- 
sion Firing— 118.  Electrical  Firing — 119.  Necessary 
Electrical  Knowledge — 120.  Four  Electrical  Processes — 
121.  Producing  the  Current — 122.  The  Dry  Battery — 
123.  What  a  Cell  Contains — 124.  Connecting  Cells — 
125.  Life  of  Dry  Cells — 126.  Advantages  of  Dry  Cells — 
127.  Their  Defects — 128.  Care  of  Dry  Cells — 129.  A 
Good  Battery  Arrangement — 130.  Connecting  Battery  to 
Engine— 131.  The  Spark  Coil— 132.  The  Spark  Plug— 
133.  How  the  Spark  Is  Formed — 134.  How  It  Fires  the 
Charge — 135.  The  Jump  Spark — 136.  The  Make-and- 
break — 137.  The  Magneto — 138.  How  It  Works — 
139.  Low  Tension  Magneto — 140.  Care  of  Magneto — 
141.    Advantage    of   Double    System — 142.    The    Primary 


xii  Table  of  Contexts 

Circuit — 143.  The  Secondary  Circuit — 144.  Wiring  Up — 
145.  Ignition  Timing — 146.  Irregular  Mechanism — 
147.     Spark  Follies 11 1 


CHAPTER   VIII 

A    CHAPTER    ON    ENGINE-SPEED    REGULATION 

148.  Controlling  an  Engine — 149.  True  Mission  of  the  Gov- 
ernor— 150.  Some  Rules  to  Remember — 151.  Changing 
Governor  Adjustment — 152.  Methods  of  Governing — 
153.  Regulating  Fuel — 154.  Hit-or-miss  System — 155,  The 
Throttling  Governor — 156.  Types  of  Governors — 
157.  The  Centrifugal  Governor — 158.  The  Pick-blade 
Type — 159.  Care  of  the  Governor — 160.  Controlling  by 
Ignition — 161.  Controlling  the  Temperature — 162.  The 
Usual  Methods — 163.  Air-cooling — 164.  The  Water- 
cooling  System — 165.  The  Open-jacket  Method — 
166.  The  Circulating  System — 167.  A  Good  Circulating 
Pump  System — 168.  Other  Systems — 169.  Amount  of 
Water  to  Use — 170.  Care  of  Water  System — 171.  Anti- 
freezing  Mixtures — 172.    Utilizing  Waste  Heat        .     133 

CHAPTER    IX 

THE    CRANK    SHAFT    AND    ITS    BEARINGS 

173.  The  Engine  Frame— 174.  The  Crank  Shaft— 175.  Fly 
Wheels  and  Their  Mission— 176.  Heavy  Fly  Wheels — 
177.  Main  Bearings — 178.  The  Best  Lining— 179.  Why 
Bearings  Heat— 180.  Gear  Wheels — 181.  Care  of  Minor 
Parts — 182.    Casual  Acquaintances     .        .        .        .     i49 

CHAPTER    X 

SETTING    THE    ENGINE 

183.  Importance  of  Proper  Setting— 184.  Stationary  Founda- 
tions—185.   The   Four-fold    Object    of   a    Good   Founda- 


Table  of  Contents  xiii 

lion — 186.  Depth  and  Nature  of  Foundations — 
187.  Foundation  Blue  Prints — 188.  Tying  Engine  to 
Foundation — 189.  Material  Required — 190.  Preparing 
Material — 191.  Making  the  Templet — 192.  Making  a 
Frame — 193.  Filling  the  Pit — 194.  Placing  the  Engine — 
195.  The  Final  Setting — 196.  Locking  the  Bolts  in  Place 
— 197.  Lining  Up — 198.  Leveling  the  Engine — 199.  Other 
Foundations;  Their  Failings — 200.  A  Unique  Founda- 
tion— 201.  Portable  Foundations — 202.  Mounted  En- 
gines— 203.  Shelter — 204.  Fittings  of  an  Engine  Room — 
205.  Storing  Oil  in  the  Engine  Room — 206.  The  Work 
Bench — 207.  The  Engine-room  Floor — 208.  Ventilation 
209.  The  Engine-room  Line  Shaft — 210.  The  Mission 
of  Paint — 211.  Painting  the  Muffler — 212.  Engine-room 
Abominations — 213.  And  a  Few  Cautions — 214.  Eliminat- 
ing the  Danger  Risk 161 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE    FUEL    SUPPLY 

215.  Gasoline  and  Its  Nature — 216.  Its  True  Value  and  Dan- 
ger— 217.  Pure  Gasoline  Vapor  Non-inflammable — 
218.  How  Gasoline  Is  Obtained — 219.  Grades — 220.  Tests. 
— 221.  A  Good  Storage  System — 222.  A  Good  Tank — 
223.  The  Foundation — 224.  The  Connections — 225.  The 
Joints — 226.  Guarding  the  Feed-pipe — 227.  Gasoline 
Dangers — 228.  Gasoline  Not  Inflammable — 229.  The 
Exact  Danger  Point  in  Gasoline — 230.  Small  Danger  in 
Tank  From  Natural  Causes — 231.  Rules  for  Safety — 
232.  Two  Fundamental  Rules — 233.  Common  Risks  and 
Errors — 234.  Gasoline  Fires;  How  to  Handle  Them — 
235.  Kerosene;  Its  Advantages — 236.  Objections  to 
Kerosene — 237.  Which  Is  Best? — 238.  Changing  From 
Gasoline  to  Kerosene — 239.  Distillate — 240.  Alcohol — 
241.  Its  Advantages — 242.  Some  Peculiarities  of  Alco- 
hol— 243.  Its  Fatal  Weakness — 244.  The  Engine-user's 
Dream. — 245.  Notes  on  Fuels 181 


xiv  Table  of  Contents 

CHAPTER    XII 

LUBRICATION 

246.  Importance — 247.  Purpose — 248.  How  Lubricants  Work 
— 249.  What  a  Lubricant  Is — 250.  Viscosity — ^251.  Fluidity 
—252.  The  Flash  Point— 253.  The  Cold  Test— 254.  Car- 
bon— 255.  Gum  and  Acids — 256.  Variety  in  Lubricants 
Needed — 257.  Gasoline  Engine  Cylinder  Oil — 258.  Bear- 
ings and  Their  Requirements — 259.  The  Specific  Pur- 
pose— 260.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Oils — 261.  Mineral  or 
Hydrocarbon  Oils — 262.  Testing  for  Acids — 263.  Test- 
ing Viscosity — 264.  Testing  for  Adulterants — 265.  Test- 
ing for  Gum— 266.  The  Flash  Point— 267.  The  Fire  Test 
— 268.  The  Cold  Test— 269.  Caibon — 270.  Oil  Waste  and 
Engine  Waste — 271.  Quantity  of  Oil — 272.  Lubricating 
Systems — 273.  The  Gravity  System— 274.  The  Splash 
System — 275.  The  Loose  Ring  Method — 276.  The  Pres- 
sure System — 277.  The  Positive  or  Force  Feed — 278. 
Oiling  Through  the  Carburetor — 279.  Filtering — 
280.  Other  Lubricants — 281.  Graphite — 282.  Grease — 
283.  Foolish  Economy — 284.  Ten  Lubricating  Command- 
ments                .....     201 

CHAPTER    XIII 

ELIMINATION    OF    ENGINE    TROUBLES 

285.  Classified  Trouble— 286.  Starting  Troubles— 287.  Oper- 
ating Troubles — 288.  Transmission  Troubles — 289.  En- 
ergy Troubles — 290.  Irregular  Troubles — 291.  The 
Source  of  Most  Trouble — 292.  The  First  Thing  to  Do— 
293.  When  Real  Trouble  Comes— 294.  Test  v^rith  a  Sys- 
tem— 295.  A  Few  Questions — 296.  Protecting  the  Hands 
— 297.  Testing  the  Electric  System— 298.  If  the  Spark  Is 
Good — 299.  A  Poor  Spark — 300.  Testing  the  Batteries — 
301.  The  Coil — 302.  A  Faulty  Magneto — 303.  A  Good 
Spark— 304.  Where  the  Shock  Is  Felt— 305.  A  Few  Ig- 
nition Facts — 306.  A  Suspected  Timer— 307.  Other 
Troubles— 308.  When  the  Engine   Starts— 309.  Lack   of 


Table  of  Contents  xv 

Power — 310.  Overheating— 311.  Cause  of  Overheating — 
312.  Causes — 313.  CooHng  a  Hot  Engine — 314.  Speed 
Variations — 315.  Suspecting  the  Governor — 316.  A  Lazy 
Engine — 317.  Pre-ignition — 318.  Misfiring — 319.  Back- 
firing— 320.  Knocking — 321.  Pounding — 322.  Outside 
Knocking — 323.  Summing  Up  Common  Troubles — 324. 
Parting   Advice 223 

CHAPTER    XIV 

SELECTING    AND    OPERATING    THE    ENGINE 

325.  Selecting — 326.  Style  Needed — 327.  The  Best  Size — 
328.  A  Plea  for  the  Small  Engine — 329.  Power  Re- 
quired for  Various  Tasks^ — 330.  What  Horse  Power 
Means — 331.  Various  Kinds  of  "Horse  Power" — 
332.  Purchasing  Horse  Power — 333.  The  Overload  as 
Affecting  Ratings — 334.  The  Question  of  Weight — 
335.  Where  the  Light  Engine  Wins — 336.  Simplicity — 
337.  The  Price — 338.  Adaptability — 339.  Other  Consid- 
erations—340.  Testing  the  Engine— 341.  Being  Fair — 
342.  When  the  Agent  Does  Not  Come — 343.  Turning  on 
the  Load— 344.  The  Outfit— 345.  The  Second-hand  En- 
gine— 346.  After  Buying — 347.  Oiling  the  Engine — 
348.  The  Cooling  System — 349.  Retarding  the  Spark — 
350.  The  Carburetor— 351.  The  Switch— -352.  Starting  the 
Wheel — 353.  Just  After  Starting — 354.  Getting  Up 
Power — 355.  Going  After  All  the  Power — 356.  The  Gos- 
pel of  Attention — 357.  And  of  Letting  Alone — 358.  Shut- 
ting Down — 359,  Things  to  Think  About — 360.  Over- 
hauling the  Engine — 361.  The  Personal  Hazard     .     245 

CHAPTER    XV 

THE    TRACTION    ENGINE 

362.  Its  Message  to  the  World — 363.  Its  First  Accomplish- 
ment— 364.  The  Second— 365.  And  the  Third — 366.  What 
the  Gasoline  Tractor  Is  Doing — 367.  Special  Appeals  to 
the  Farmer— 368.  The  Small  Farm  Tractor — 369.  Trailers 
Not  Satisfactory — 370.  Cost  of  Tractor  Farming     ,     277 


^vi  Table  of  Contents 

CHAPTER    XVI 

WHAT    IS    BEST    IN    A    TRACTOR 

371.  The  Demand— 372.  The  Tractive  Power— 373.  General 
Construction-374.  Other  Forms  of  Transmission— 
375.  Steam  and  Gasoline  Tractor  Differences— 376  The 
Best  Engine-377.  The  Clutch-378.  The  Best  Trans- 
mission—379.  Differential  or  Compensating  Gear— 
380.  How  It  Works-381.  Power  of  the  Gasoline  Tractor 
-382.    Power    Needed    in    Plowing-383.    Home-made 

Tractors 

290 

CHAPTER  XVII 

OPERATING  THE  TRACTOR 

384.  Preparing  for  the  First  Start-385.  Starting-386. 
Learning  to  Guide  the  Tractor-387.  Mud-hole  Philoso- 
phy-388.  Lots  of  Sand— 389.  Bridges  and  Other  Ob- 
stacles-390.  Speed  Allowable-391.  Hauling  with  the 
"rrT^!:^'''  ^''''-  ^^—93.   General    Care 

303 

CHAPTER    XVIII 

POWER     TRANSMISSION 

394.  An  Important  Problem_39S.  Methods  in  Use-jofi 
Shaftmg_397.  Poor  Shafting  Unprofitable-agS  Gen 
eral  Shaftmg  Wisdom-399.  Balancing  Pulleys-400 
Speed  of  Shafts-4ox.  Size  of  PulIeysl4o..  Pulleys-!: 
403.  Straight  and  Crown  Face-404.  Use  of  Pulleys- 
405.  Covering  Iron  Pulleys_4o6.  How  Secured  to  Shaft 
-407.  The  Deadly  Set.screw-408.  Other  Pulley  Dan 
gers— 409.  Tight  and  Loose  Pulleys— ^in  Th  •  r 
for   Trouble-4rr.    Cone    Pulleys.  \Z  ¥heir^  u/eiT; 


Table  of  Contents  xvii 

Home-made  Pulleys — 413.  Bearings — 414.  Roller  Bear- 
ings— 415.  Ball  Bearings — 416.  What  Babbitt  Metal  Is — 
417.  Preparing  Boxes  for  Babbitting— 418.  Preparing  the 
Babbitt — 419.  Casting  the  Bearing — 420.  Babbitting  a 
Split  Box 313 

CHAPTER    XIX 

BELTS    AND    BELTING 

421.  Reasons  for  Using  Belts — 422.  A  Few  Drawbacks — 423. 
Belt  Essentials — 424.  Leather  Belts — 425.  Rubber  Belt- 
ing— 426.  Canvas  Belting — 427.  Care  of  Belts — 428.  Belt 
Dressing — 429.  Size  Required — 430.  A  Convenient  Rule 
— 431.  Length  of  Belts — 432.  Speed  of  Belts — 433.  Belt 
Slipping — 434.  Belt  Hints — 435.  A  Useful  Belt  Kink — 
436.  Belt  Lacing — 437.  Lace  Leathers — 438.  Methods  of 
Lacing — 439.  Wire  Laces  and  Belt  Hooks — 440.  Cement- 
ing Belts — 441.  Splicing  a  Gandy  or  Canvas  Belt — 442. 
Rope  Transmission 33° 

CHAPTER    XX 

OTHER   FORMS   OF   TRANSMISSION 

443.  Gear  Wheels — 444.  Material — 445.  Finish — 446.  Spur 
Gearing — 447.  Bevel  and  Miter  Gears — 448.  Intermittent 
Gears — 449.  Cams — 450.  Worm  Gear — 451.  Other  Gear 
Wheels — 452.  Raw  Hide  Gearing — 453.  Care  of  Leather 
Pinions — 454.  Rules  Governing  Gear  Repairs — 455. 
Power  of  Gear  Wheels — 456.  An  Ideal  Gear  Wheel  Or- 
der— 457.  General  Care 34^ 

CHAPTER    XXI 

THE    FEED    ROOM 

458.  When  Feed  Grinding  Does  Not  Pay — 459.  Convenient 
Grinding — 460.  Convenient  Feeding — 461.  Feed  Always 
Fresh — 462.  The  Balanced  Ration — 463.  A  Good  Feeding 
Plan — 464.    A     Special     Appetizer — 465.     Grinding     Cob 


xviii  Table  of  Contents 

Meal — 466.  Grinding  the  Family  Grist — 467.  Accessories 
of  the  Feed  Room — 468.  Objections  to  Constant  Water 
Supply — 469.  Constant  Renewal  Necessary — 470.  The 
Gasoline  Engine  a  Necessity — 471.  The  Open  Trough— 
472.  Automatic  Troughs — 473.  A  Home-made  Substitute 
— 474.  Advantages  of  Drinking  System — 475.  The  Work 
of  the  Engine — 476.  Flushing  out  the  Gutters — 477.  Sta- 
ble Arrangement  Required — 478.  Flushing  Out,  the  More 
Sanitary  Way — 479.  Final  Disposal  on  Fields        .     356 

CHAPTER    XXII 
THE    WORKSHOP 

480.  Its  Mission — 481.  As  Trouble-healer — 482.  A  Good 
Equipment — 483.  The  Engine  in  the  Workshop — 484.  Its 
Proper  Place — 485.  An  Ideal  Shop  Arrangement — 486. 
The  Engine's  Position — 487.  Connecting  Engine  to 
Work— 488.  Locating  Machines — 489.  Effect  on  Man  and 
Boy 367 

CHAPTER    XXIII 

THE    FARM    WOOD    PILE 

490.  Two  Memories — 491.  A  Thankless  Task— 492.  What  It 
Really  Cost— 493.  To-day's  Wood  Pile— 494.  Why  Popu- 
lar—495.  The  Circle  Saw  Rig— 496.  Power  Required— 
497.  The  Best  Rig— 498.  Setting  Up— 499.  The  Drag 
Saw— 500.  Construction— 501.  Operating  the  Drag  Saw 
—502.  A  Complete  Automatic  Rig— 503.  Wood  Split- 
ting         •     375 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

ORCHARD  AND  GARDEN 

504.  Slipshod  Spraying  Wasted  Time— 505.  Where  the  En- 
gine Excels— 506.  Nature's  Method— 507.  What  Spray- 
ing Is  for— 508.  Causes  of  Failure— 509.  A  Successful 
Method— 510.  A  Good  Pumping  Outfit— 511.  Good  Noz- 
zles— 512.  The  Hose— 513.  Good  and  Cheap  Outfits— 514. 
Results  of  Spraying— 515.  When  Trees  Are  Not 
Sprayed .387 


Table  of  Contents  xix 

CHAPTER    XXV 

IRRIGATION 

516.  Why  Needed — 517.  Where — 518.  When^Sig.  Where 
Drought  Has  No  Terrors — 520.  Certain  Drawbacks — 521. 
A  Good  Irrigation  Plant — 522.  Quantity  of  Water  Re- 
quired— 523.  The  Cost — 524.  The  Engine  Required — 525. 
The  Centrifugal  Pump — 526.  Its  Limitation — 527.  Dif- 
ferent Types — 528.  Garden  and  Small  Farm  Irrigation — 
529.  Deep-well  Pumping — 530.  Distributing  the  Water — 
531.  Kinks  and  Cautions 399 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  WOMAN'S  STORY 

532.  What  Machinery  Has  Done  for  Some  Farm  Women — 
533.  The  Farm  Power  Laundry — 534.  Ironing  by  En- 
gine Power — 535.  The  Water  Supply — 536.  The  Storage 
System — 537.  Elevated  Tanks — 538.  The  Pressure  Tank 
— 539-  Advantages  Over  the  Elevated  Tank — 540.  Mak- 
ing It  Pay — 541.  Dish  Washing — 542.  Outside  the  House 
— 543.  The  Vacuum  Cleaner — 544.  Cleaning  House — 545. 
Milking  Machines — 546.  The  Cream  Separator — 547.  The 
Governor  Pulley — 548.  How  It  Works — 549.  For  Bottled 
Milk — 550.  Churning  by  Power — 551.  The  Ice  Problem — 
552.  Other  Household  Uses— 553.  A  Handy  Kitchen  De- 
vice— 554.  Cleaning  Various  Utensils — 555.  Starting  and 
Stopping  the  Engine— 556.  Filling  the  Lamps — 557.  Stor- 
age Battery  Capacity — 558.  Lighting  Up — 559.  The  Sys- 
tem Complete — 'Seo.  Door  Maid  and  Burglar  Chaser — 
561.  Making  Electrical  Conveniences  Available  on  the 
Farm — 562.  The  Engine  That  the  Housewife  Needs — 
563.  The  Farm  Girl  and  Boy— 564.  The  Price— 565. 
What   Others   Pay 416 

CHAPTER    XXVII 

HOME-MADE   CONVENIENCES 

566.  Self-propelling  Engines — 567.  Light  Power  Tractors — 
568.  The  Horseless  Buggy — 569.  Low  Power  Trucking — 
570.  What  the.  Old  Farm  Wagon  Can  Do — 571.  A  Rapid 
Post  Hole  Digger— 572.  The   Home-made  Well   Drill— 


XX  Table  of  Contents 

573.  A  Good  Barn  Hoist — 574.  Grain  Tender  at  Thresh- 
ing Time — 575.  A  Home-made  Auto — 576.  Two  Boys 
and  a  Cultivator — 577.  Wheelbarrow  Energy — 578.  A 
Uniaue  Fruit  Harvester — 579.  A  Home-made  Power 
Saw — 580.  Minor  Contrivances 452 

CHAPTER    XXVIII 

MODERN    POWER    APPLICATIONS 

581.  Helping  the  Binder— 582.  In  the  Hay  Field— 583.  Mak- 
ing the  Spreader  Work — 584.  The  Short  tower  Wagon — 
585.  At  Threshing  Time — 586.  Harvesting  the  Corn  Crop 
—587.  Hauling  by  Cable— 588.  The  Road  Machine;  What 
Gasoline  Is  Doing  for  Our  Country  Highways — 589. 
Fighting  Weeds — 590.  Ditching — 591.  The  Farm  Roller 
— 592.  Shearing  and  Dipping — 593.  In  the  Poultry  Yard 
— 594.  The  Road  to  Market — 595.  Building  Home  Mem- 
ories          470 

CHAPTER    XXIX 

THE  IDEAL  FARM 

596.  A  Look  Into  To-morrow — 597.  Summary  of  the  Com- 
plete Farm  Home,  Including  Household,  Garden,  Barns 
and  Fields — 598.  How  the  Gasoline  Engine  Makes  It 
Possible— -599.  When  Dreams  Come  True        .        .    493 

CHAPTER    XXX 
USEFUL  RULES  AND  FORMULA 

600.  Tables,  Rules,  Calculations,  Hints  and  Suggestions 
Useful  in  the  Application  of  the  Modern  Farm 
Power 497 

601.  Mutual  Relations  of  These  Measurements       .        .    499 

602.  The  Fire  Hazard 500 

603.  Fire    Fragments 502 

604.  Heat   Values 502 

605.  Thermal    Efficiency 503 

606.  Horse    Power    Formulae 503 

607.  The  Brake  Test 504 

608.  The    Prony   Brake   Test 504 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  I — Frontispiece — Gas   Tractor   Doing  the    Work  of 

Forty   Horses   and   Twenty   Men         ....       2 


CHAPTER    I 

Fig.  2 — The  Portable  Gas  Engine  Solves  the  Problem  of 

Practical   Farm   Power 35 

Fig.  3 — The   Call   of  the   Field   for   Power   Best   Met  by 

Modern   Gas    Tractor 2>7 

Fig.  4 — The  Man  with  the  Hoe  of  To-day         .         .         .40 


CHAPTER    II 

Fig.  5 — Showing     Action     of     Inlet     Valve     on     Suction 

Stroke 45 

Fig.  6 — Piston    Nearing    End    of    Compression    Stroke. 

Position  Just   Prior  to    Ignition  .         .         .         -45 

Fig.  7 — Piston  Descending  on  Power  Stroke     .         .         .46 

Fig.  8 — Depicting  Action  of  Exhaust  Valve  on  Scaveng- 
ing   Stroke 46 

Fig.  9 — Sectional  View  of  Reeves  Horizontal  Engine, 
Illustrating  All  Important  Parts  of  Modern  Gas 
Motor 48 


CHAPTER    III  t 

Fig.  10 — Sectional  View  of  Vertical  Engine  Showing  Im- 
portant  Components 49 

Fig.   II — Illustrating  Defects   Liable  in   Boring  Cylinder. 
Compare    Defective   Spots   Shown   at   a  and  b  with 

Perfect   Wall   at   c 54 

xxi 


xxii  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Fig.   12 — Sectional     View     of     I.H.C.     Engine     Cylinder 

Showing  Water  Jacket  and  Valve  System         .         .     62 

Fig.  13 — Sectional  View  of  Air-Cooled  Motor.  Figures 
Denote  Following  Parts:  12 — Crankshaft.  14 — Oil 
Pipe.  19 — Petcock  for  Compression  Release.  20 — 
Valve  Spring  Key.  21 — Valve  Washer.  22 — Inlet 
Valve  Spring.  23 — Inlet  Valve  Guide.  24 — Intake 
Valve.  25 — Valve  Cage.  26 — Sparkplug.  27 — Spark- 
plug Porcelain.  28 — Exhaust  Valve.  29 — Exhaust 
Valve  Seat.  30 — Exhaust  Valve  Guide.  31 — Ex- 
haust Valve  Stem.  Z'^^ — Exhaust  Spring.  34 — Ex- 
haust Operating  Rod.  35 — Cam  Roller.  36 — Timer 
Cover  Screw.  Z7 — Contact  Spring.  38 — Timer  Ad- 
vance Lever.  41 — Timing  Pinion.  42 — Cam  Gear. 
43 — Drain  Cock.  44 — Pipe  Regulating  Oil  Level. 
45 — Gear  Operating  Shaft.  46 — Camshaft  for  Ex- 
haust.    48 — Piston.      50 — Oil    Groove  .         .         .65 


CHAPTER    IV 

Fig.  14 — Vital    Parts    of    a    Jacobson*   Horizontal     Gas 

Engine 68 

Fig.   15 — Piston  of  I.H.C.  Engine  and  Rings      .         .         -     IZ 

Fig.  16 — Longitudinal  and  Cross  Section  of  Typical  Pis- 
ton   74 

Fig.   17 — Concentric  Ring  with  Diagonal  Cut  Joint.     Fig. 

18 — Eccentric  Ring  with  Stepped  or  Lapped  Joint     .     74 

Fig.  19 — Piston    Pin   Oil   Feed      .         .         .         .         .         .     yy 

Fig.  20 — Simple    Device    for    Removing    and    Replacing 

Rings 79 

Fig.  21 — Marine    Type    of    Bushed    Connecting    Rod         .     80 


CHAPTER    V 

Fig.  22 — Cross  Section  of  Valve   Chamber         .         .         .86 
Fig.  22^ — Sectional  View  of  Combustion  Chamber,  Show- 
ing Arrangement   of  Valves   in   Cylinder    Head         .     87 
Fig.  24 — Typical    Mechanical    Valve    Gear         .         .         .95 
Fig.  25 — Sectional   Views   of   Conventional   Mufflers         .     97 


List  of  Illustrations  xxiii 


CHAPTER    VI 

PAGE 

Fig.  26 — Exterior  View  of  One  Model  Kingston  Car- 
buretor       100 

Fig.  2^ — Sectional   View   of   Kingston   Carburetor     .         .   100 

Fig.  28 — How     the     Carburetor     Vaporizes.       Sectional 

View  of  Breeze  Device  Shows  Important  Parts         .   102 

Fig.  29 — Sectional  View  Showing  Parts  of  Krice  Car- 
buretor     .         .  104 


CHAPTER    VII 

Fig.  30 — Bent    Hot   Tube    Igniter 112 

Fig.  31 — Sectional   Views   of   Standard   Dry    Cells.     A — 

European  Construction.  B — American  Design  .  115 
Fig.  32 — Showing  Dry  Cell  Battery  Wired  in  Series  .  116 
Fig"-  ZZ — Simple  Jump  Spark  Wiring  System  .  .  .118 
Fig.  34 — Jump    Spark    Vibrator    Coil    for    One    Cylinder 

Ignition  119 

Fig-  35 — Sectional  View  of  Spark  Plug       ....  120 
Fig.  36 — Bosch    Magneto,    Exterior    View           .                  .   122 
Fig.  Z7 — Longitudinal  Sectional  View  of  Bosch  Magneto  123 
Fig.  38 — Rear  View   of  Bosch    Magneto,   Showing   Con- 
tact Breaker  and  Distributor 124 

Fig.  39 — Showing  Ignition  Magneto  in  Place  on  Engine 

Base 127 

Fig.  40 — Simple    High-Tension    Wiring    System,    Using 

Batteries    and    Magneto 128 

Fig.  41 — Low-Tension  or  Make-and-Break  Spark  Wiring 
System  Using  Magneto  with  Batteries  as  Auxiliary 

Source   of   Current 129 

Fig.  42 — High  and  Low-Tension   Current  Conductors     .  130 


CHAPTER    VIII 

Fig.  43 — Method  of  Speed  Regulation  through  Valves  .  136 
Fig.  44 — Centrifugal  Governor  Attached  to  Carburetor  .  138 
Fig.  45 — Pick-blade  Governor,  Showing  Cam  Action  .  139 
Fig.  46 — Side  View  of  Cam  Action  on  Lever     .         .         .   140 


xxiv  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Fig.  47 — Type    of   Air-Cooled    Cylinder    Used   on    "New 

Way"    Engines 141 

Fig.  48 — Depicting  Flow  of  Water  Through  Jackets   of 

Water-Cooled    Engine 143 

Fig.  49 — Sectional  View  of  Cylinder  of  I.H.C.  Engine, 
Showing  Integrally  Cast  Hopper  Used  in  Open 
Jacket   Cooling  System 144 


CHAPTER    IX 

Fig.  50 — Main  Bearings  Incorrectly  Placed.  Strain  of 
Explosion  Impulse  Exerted  Directly  Against  Cap 
and    Bolts 149 

Fig.  51 — Main    Bearings    Placed    so    a    Twisting    Strain 

Comes   on   Cap   and   Bolts   Every  Impulse         .         .  150 

Fig.  52 — Main    Bearings    Correctly    Placed — All    Stress 

Taken  by  Bed  of  Engine 150 

Fig-  53 — Single  Throw  Crankshaft 151 

Fig.  54 — Three  Throw  Crankshaft,  with  Counterpoise  or 

Balance  Weights 151 

Fig-  55 — Gas  Engine  Flywheel  of  Approved  Design         .  152 

Fig.  56 — Typical  Engine  Bearing,  Showing  Oil  Grooves 

C  and  Retaining  Plugs  A     .         .         .         .         .         .  153 


CHAPTER    X 

Fig.  57 — The  New  Farm  Factory  Made  Possible  by 
Modern  Gasoline  Engine.  Note  Wood  Saw  at  One 
End  and  Watering  Trough  at  the  Other  .         .  160 

Fig.  58 — Gasoline   Engine   Base   Plan  to   Show   Amount 

of  Space  and  Holes  Needed  for  Installation       .         .  162 
Fig.  59 — Method  of  Securing  Heavy  Engine  to  Concrete 

Foundation 163 

Fig.  60 — Template  for  Locating  Bolt  Holes  .  .  .  165 
Fig.  61 — Engine  on  Foundation,  Bolted  in  Place  .  .  168 
Fig.  62 — Method  of  Re-inforcing  Wooden  Floors  .  .  170 
Fig.  63 — A  Gasoline  Engine-Driven  Concrete  Mixer  .  171 
Fig.  64 — A  Gasoline  Engine-Driven  Stone  Crusher  .  172 
Fig.  65 — A    Wheeled    Foundation    Needed    for    Tractor 

Engine I73 


List  of  Illustrations  xxv 

CHAPTER   XI 

PAGE 

Fig.  66 — A  Bowser  Gasoline  Storage  System     .        .        .  184 
Fig.  67 — Bowser     Gasoline     Storage     Tank     with     Con- 
venient   Fittings .  185 

Fig.  68 — Bowser    Underground     Tank    with     Measuring 

Pump   Attached 189 

Fig.  69 — Simple    Gasoline   Tank   Gauge       ....  193 

Fig.  70 — Typical    lO-H.P.    Kerosene    Engine       .         .         .  196 

CHAPTER    XII 

Fig.  71 — Polished  Steel.  Rod  Looks  Rough  if  Magnified 

Greatly 202 

Fig.  72 — Section  Through   Four-Cylinder  Motor,    Show- 
ing   Lubricating   System 209 

Fig-  73 — Exterior    and    Interior    Views    of    Sight    Feed 

Gravity  Lubricator 214 

Fig.  74 — Explaining  the  Splash  System  of  Lubrication  .  215 
Fig-  75 — Loose    Ring   for    Bearing    Lubrication         .         .  216 
Fig.  76 — Mechanically  Operated  Plunger  Oil   Pump   In- 
sures Force  Feed 217 

CHAPTER    XIII 

Fig-  77 — Pocket    Size    Battery   Testing   Gauge    Indicates 

Either  Volts   or  Amperes 229 

CHAPTER    XIV 

Fig.  78 — A  Typical  Horizontal  Gasoline  Engine      .         .  246 
Fig.  79 — Easy  Work  for  One  and  One-half  Horsepower 

Gray    Engine 248 

Fig.  80 — Corn   Sheller   Easily  Operated  by  One   Horse- 
power          249 

Fig.  81 — Simple   Prony  Brake  Test 250 

Fig.  82 — Another  Type  of   Prony  Brake    ....  251 


xxvi  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Fig.  83 — Correct  and  Incorrect  Method  of  Cranking  an 
Engine.  Correct  Method,  Left  Hand  Used.  In 
Case  of  Pre-ignition  Handle  Is  Jerked  Away  From 
the  Hand,  Which  Is  Left  Outside  of  Crank  Circle. 
Incorrect  Method,  Uses  Right  Hand.  Back  Kick 
Will  Either  Drive  Handle  Against  Hand  or  Leave 
Hand  in  Crank  Circle.  Result,  Broken  Arm  or 
Wrist 274 


CHAPTER    XV 

Fig.  84 — Assembly  View  of  Oil  Pull  Gas  Tractor,  Show- 
ing   Working    Parts    and    Their    Relation    to    Each  ' 
Other 276 

Fig.  85 — Gas    Tractor    Insures    100    Per    Cent.    Gain    in 

Production  Through  More  Thorough  Tillage  of  Soil  284 

Fig.  86 — The    Hackney    Small    Farm    Plowing    Tractor 

Carries  the  Plows  as  Part  of  the  Machine         .         .  286 

Fig.  87 — The  Broad  Wheels  of  the  Gas  Tractor  Should 
Make  Cultivated  Fields  as  Smooth  as  Floors  and 
Add   Greatly  to   Life  of  Machinery     ....  288 


CHAPTER    XVI 

Fig.  88— The  Power  Plant  Is  the  Heart  of  the  Tractor. 

Many    Present-day    Traction    Engines    Are    of    the 

Four  Cylinder  Four  Cycle  Type  ....  292 
Fig.  89 — Bevel  Reversing  Gear  Train  ....  293 
Fig.  90 — Reversing  Gear  of  Gas  Tractor  .  .  .  294 
Fig.  91 — Typical    Tractor    Steering    Gear,    Front    Truck 

Showing  295 

Fig.  92 — Bevel    Differential   and   Spur    Driving   Gears   of 

I.H.C.    Tractor 299 


CHAPTER    XVII 

Fig-  93 — Simple  Home   Made  Tractor  and   Circular  Saw 

Stand 303 


List  of  Illustrations  xxvii 

PAGE 

Fig.  94 — A  Recent  Factory  Output  with  Enclosed  Power 

Plant  and  Mechanism 304 

Fig.  95 — A    Gasoline    Engine    Operated    Hay    Press         .  312 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

Fig.  96 — Countershaft  and  Hangers  Ready  for  Belts  .  314 
Fig.  97 — Construction  of  Split  Wood  Pulley  .  .  .  31? 
Fig.  98 — Method  of  Covering  or  Lagging  Pulley  .  .  318 
Fig.  99 — Countershaft  Assembly  with  Tight,   Loose  and 

Stepped  Pulleys 321 

Fig.  100 — Solid  Box  Bearing  or  Pillow  Block  .  .  325 
Fig.  loi — Sells  Roller  Bearing  Shaft  Box  Fits  Standard 

Hangers  3^5 

Fig.  102 — Sectional  View  of  New   Departure  Ball   Bear- 
ing  Shaft    Hanger   Box 326 


CHAPTER    XIX 

Fig.  103 — A  Study  in  Belt  Contacts.  Two  Equal  Pulleys 
a  and  b  Have  a  Belt  Grip  of  180  Degrees.  When 
Two  Unequal  Pulleys  Are  Used,  the  Largest  One, 
d,  Gains  in  Transmission  Efficiency,  Because  Belt 
Contact  Is  More  Than  Half  the  Circumference;  the 
Smaller  One,  c,  Looses  Because  Belt  Contact  Is  Less 

Than    180   Degrees 334 

Fig.  104 — The  Crossed  Belt.  Each  Pulley  Has  an  Arc 
of  Belt  Contact  More  Than  180  Degrees.  In  Gen- 
eral, Loss  Because  of  Friction  in  Twisted  Belt 
Overcomes  Advantage  of  Greater  Belt  Contact. 
Arrangement  Shown  Useful  for  Reverse  Drive  .  335 
Fig.  105 — Driving  with  Long,  Heavy  Belt,  Showing  Sag  336 
Fig.  106 — A  Useful  Kink.  Driving  Belt  Loose,  but  Kept 
in  Contact  with  Pulleys  with  Lighter,  Narrow  Bind- 
ing  Belt  339 

Fig.  107 — The  Finished  Joint,  Pulley  Side  .  .  .  340 
Fig.  108 — The  Finished  Laced  Joint,  Top  of  Belt  .  340 
Fig.  109 — Several  Methods  of  Belt  Lacing  .  .  .  342 
Fig.   no — Some  Approved  Metallic  Belt  Hooks         .         .  343 


xxviii  List  of  Illustr.' 


vnoNS 


CHAPTER    XX 


Fig, 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig, 


III — Internal   Spur   Gear 347 

112 — External   Spur   Gearing 347 

113 — Bevel   Gearing 348 

114 — Intermittent    Gears 348 

115 — Action  of  Cam  Outlined 349 

116 — Worm  Gearing  Used  in  Tractor  Steering  Gears  350 

117 — Spiral   Gear  Used  for  Cam  Shaft   Operation  .  350 
118 — Illustrating    Terms    Used    in    Ordering    Spur 

Gear    Wheels 352 


CHAPTER    XXI 

Fig.   119 — Feed  Mill  with  Direct  Shaft  Drive  from  New 

Holland    Engine 356 

Fig.   120 — Mill  for  Grinding  Two  Kinds  of  Grain     .         .  359 
Fig.   121 — Power    Driven    Mill    for    Grinding   Grain,    Cob 

and  Husk 360 


CHAPTER    XXII 

Fig.  122 — A  Handy  Shop  Engine,  Equipped  with  Coun- 
tershaft and  Three  Different  Sizes  of  Driving 
Pulleys  369 

Fig.  123 — The  Most  Important  Farm  Implement     .         .  370 

Fig.  124 — Gray  Engine  Driving  Bandsaw  in  Wood- 
working  shop 371 

Fig.  125 — General  Farm  Workshop  Floor  Plan,  Show- 
ing Good  Arrangement  of  Machines  and  Housing 
of  Engine  in  Separate  Compartment  to  Reduce  Fire 
Risk 372 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

Fig.  126 — Sawing  Wood  by  Gas  Power  Not  an  Irksome 

Task .         .         .         .374 


List  of  Illustrations  xxix 

PAGE 

Fig  12/ — Gasoline    Engine    and    Circular    Saw    Outfit   in 

Portable  Form 378 

Fig.   128 — A    Drag   Saw    Worked    by   Engine    Power         .  381 
Fig.  129 — Wood    Splitter    Operated    by    Engine    Power 

Works  Well  in  Combination  with  Circular  Saw       .  386 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

Fig.  130 — Fruit  of  Sprayed  Trees.  Sound  Fruit  in  Pile, 
Wormy  Fruit  in  Basket.  On  Adjacent  Tree  of 
Same  Variety,  which  Was  Not  Sprayed,  Only  42 
Per  Cent,  of  Fruit  Was  Sound 389 

Fig.  131 — Gasoline  Engine  with  Triplex  Pump  for  Large 
Capacity  Spraying  Outfits  or  Water  Supply  Pur- 
poses   390 

Fig.  132 — A  Typical  Animal  Drawn  Gas  Engine  Oper- 
ated  Spraying    Outfit 392 

Fig-  133 — Portable  Spraying  Outfit  at  Work  in  Orchard, 
Showing  Utility  of  Platform  in  Reaching  Top  of 
Trees 393 

Fig.  134 — A  Few  Examples  of  Spraying  Nozzles     .         .  394 

Fig.  135 — Power  Spraying  Outfit  at  Work         .         .         .  395 

Fig.  136 — Results  of  Spraying  Illustrated.  Nine  Baskets 
of  Perfect  Peaches,  Unsound  Fruit  on  Upturned 
Basket  at  Left 397 


CHAPTER    XXV 

Fig.  137 — Drought  Has  No  Terrors  where  Power  Driven 

Pumping    Outfits    Are    Used 400 

Fig.  138 — What   a   Good   Irrigating    Plant    Contains         .  401 

Fig.  139 — Plenty   of   Water   Here 403 

Fig.  140 — Centrifugal   Pump   Directly   Coupled  to    Gaso- 
line   Motor       .........  405 

Fig.  141 — Small    Gasoline   Power  Plant    Operating   Two 

Diaphragm  Pumps 406 

Fig.  142 — Garden  Irrigation  by  Flowing  Method  .  .  409 
Fig.  143 — Power  Pumping  Outfit  for  Deep  Well  .  .  410 
Fig.   144 — Deming  Horizontal   Power  Pump       .         .         .411 


XXX  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Fig.   145 — Air    Cooled    Engine    and    Pump    Mounted    on 

Common  Base 412 

Fig.   146 — Water    Distribution    by    Seepage    Method         .  413 
Fig.   147 — Water   Distribution   by   Flooding   Method         .  414 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

Fig.   148 — The   Woman's    Engine 417 

Fig.   149 — The   New    Washerwoman    Lightens   a    Former 

Household   Burden 418 

Fig.   150 — A  Complete  Washing  Outfit  Adapted  for  Use 

with   Power 419 

Fig.   151 — No    Lifting   Except   to    Fold    for   Wringer         .  420 

Fig.  152 — When  Electric  Power  Is  on  Tap  to  Operate 
Washer.  A — Washer  Pulley.  B — Wringer  Pulley. 
C — Countershaft  Pulley.  D — Electric  Motor  Pulley. 
E — W^asher  Driving  Pulley  on  Countershaft.  F — 
Hangers.  I — Electric  Motor.  K — Snap  Switch.  L 
— Power  Release  Lever 421 

Fig.  153 — A  Complete  Pneumatic  Water  Supply  System 
Gives  Important  City  Convenience  in  Country 
Homes 423 

Fig.  154 — A     Portable     Vacuum     Cleaner     Operated     by 

Cushman    Farm    Motor 427 

Fig.  155 — Creating  the  Vacuum  for  Milking  by  Gasoline 

Power 429 

Fig.   156 — Milking    Cows    by    Vacuum    Process    Cleanly, 

Sanitary  and  Not  Injurious  to  Animals     .         .         .  430 

Fig.  157 — The  Present  Day  Dairy  Maid  Uses  Gasoline 
Power  to  Advantage.  Note  Engine  on  Base  of 
Cream   Separator     . 432 

Fig.  158 — The  Parker  Speed  Governor  Pulley  Secures 
Steady  Separator  Drive  from  Even  Intermittent  Gas 
Power 433 

Fig.  159 — How  Parker  Speed  Governor  Pulley  Is  Em- 
ployed         434 

Fig.   160 — Churning  by    Power   of    Gray    Motor         .         .  435 

Fig.   161 — Gasoline  Motor  Driven  Ice  Cutter  .         .  436 

Fig.  162 — A  Well  Kept  Lawn  Insured  with  Motor  Pro- 
pelled  Lawn   Mower 438 


List  of  Illustrations  xxxi 

PAGE 

Fig.   163 — A  Light  Horizontal  Air-Cooled  I.H.C.  Engine 

Suitable    for   Household   Use 439 

Fig.  164 — Dynamo  Operated  by  Small  Gas  Engine  Pro- 
vides   Inexhaustible    Lighting   Current         .         .         .  440 

Fig.  165 — Electric  Farm  Lighting  Outfit  Turns  Night 
into  Day  and  Provides  Another  City  Convenience 
for   the    Farmer 443 

Fig.  166 — Complete  Residence  Lighting  Outfit  for  Coun- 
try Use 444 

Fig.   167 — Storage  Battery  Employed  in  Connection  with 

House    Lighting  Outfit 445 

Fig.   168 — Electric   Lamp  Using  Incandescent  Filament  .  446 


CHAPTER    XXVIT 

Fig.  169 — Tractor  Sawing  Outfit  of  Leslie  Reed,  Cotton- 
wood, Idaho,  Goes  to  Work  Under  Its  Own  Power 
and  Is  an  Ingenious  Home  Made  Apparatus     .         .  452 

Fig.  170 — Double  Drum  Hoist  for  Use  in  Connection 
with  Gasoline  Engine  Made  by  Brown  Clutch  Com- 
pany   459 

Fig.   171 — Unloading   Hay   by   Gasoline   Power   Utilizing 

Brown    Double    Drum    Hoist         .....  461 

Fig.  172 — Engine  Outfit  Easily  Moved  by  One  Man  Be- 
cause  of  Wheelbarrow  Truck       .....  465 

Fig.  173 — Small  Gray  Motor  Helping  the  Binder     .         .  470 


CHAPTER    XXVIII 

Fig.  174 — The   Motor  Truck  in  the   Hay   Field 

Fig.   175 — The   Modern   Connecting  Link  Between   Farm 
and  Market      . 

Fig.  176 — The  Gasoline  Engine  Indispensable  in  Thresh 
ing   Time  

Fig.  177 — Better  Roads  Made  Possible  at  Small  Cost  by 
Gas  Tractor  Outfits        ...... 

Fig.  178 — The  Gas  Tractor  Shortens  the  Road  to  Mar- 
ket      

Fig.   179 — Home    Memories 


473 

475 

476 

480 

487 
490 


THE  GASOLINE  ENGINE  ON  THE 
FARM 

CHAPTER    L 
THE    CALL   AND    THE   ANSWER. 

1.  The  Great  Farm  Problem. — The  world  is  asking 
for  bread  and  the  farmer  must  supply  it.  For  that 
purpose  he  cultivates  his  lands.  The  call  of  the 
farmer  is  for  efficient  helpers.  There  is  a  scarcity  of 
workmen  which  is  hampering  him  at  every  turn.  It 
required  50,000  acres,  some  one  has  figured,  to  supply 
the  meager  necessities  of  a  single  savage,  but  less  than 
twenty-five  acres  are  available  to  supply  the  more  ex- 
acting demands  of  each  citizen  to-day.  Intensive  cul- 
ture alone  can  meet  the  demand ;  more  work  and  bet- 
ter work  on  every  available  acre,  and  the  call  for  extra 
helpers  which  cannot  be  answered  with  men  must  be 
met  by  machinery.  The  farmer  of  the  future  must  be 
a  mechanic  rather  than  a  day  laborer.  He  will  have 
time  for  little  but  the  intellectual  part  of  soil-tilling, 
while  the  manual  labor  will  more  and  more  of  it  be 
done  w^th  wheels  and  levers.  Hand  labor  was  long 
ago  dispensed  with  in  the  mill  and  factory  wdierever 
possible  because  it  is  more  expensive  than  the  factory 
can  afford.  The  farmer  has  adhered  to  the  harder  and 
more  costly  method  and  has  performed  work  manually 
that  some  adequate  farm  power  might  have  done  bet- 
ter and  cheaper. 

2.  The    Machine    Designer's    Problem. — ]\Iany    de- 

33 


34  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Fx\rm 

vices  that  might  have  reduced  the  labor  of  the  farmet 
have  never  been  placed  upon  the  market,  because  all 
farm  machinery  formerly  had  to  be  restricted  to  the 
limits  of  the  horse  in  power  and  speed.  In  this  re- 
spect the  farm  implement  designer  has  been  more 
seriously  hampered  than  any  other  class  of  inventors. 
Without  the  aid  of  steam  and  electricity  our  factories 
would  still  be  in  their  infancy.  How  much  the  world 
has  lost  through  its  most  important  industry,  agricul- 
ture, because  of  this  unfortunate  limit  placed  upon  her 
field  appliances  can  only  be  guessed  at.  Many  valu- 
able inventions  have  been  abandoned  because  they  had 
to  be  made  too  light  or  too  slow  for  effective  work,  in 
order  that  they  might  be  handled  by  the  ordinary 
farm  team. 

3.  The  Call  of  the  Farm. — The  call  of  the  farm  is 
for  power;  some  means  by  which  the  intelligence  of  a 
single  man  can  direct  a  force  that  will  do  as  much 
work  as  a  dozen  or  a  hundred  men  could  do  with  their 
unaided  hands.  Farming  has  indeed  advanced  from 
the  plane  of  simply  making  a  living  to  that  of  a  great 
commercial  project.  From  plowing  to  shelling,  it 
takes  four  and  one-half  hours'  work  to  raise  one 
bushel  of  corn  by  hand.  Machinery  and  power  reduce 
this  to  forty-one  minutes.  The  same  commercial  argu- 
ments which  demand  power  in  the  factories  render  it 
€ven  more  necessary  upon  the  farm. 

4.  Other  Forms  of  Power  and  Where  They  Fail. — • 
Various  forms  of  farm  power  have  been  tried  and  have 
failed.  The  tread-mill  was  not  a  real  power,  but  a 
clumsy  means  of  transmitting  the  limited  energy  of 
some  animal.  It  was  unsteady,  hard  to  operate,  and 
soon  became  a  synonym  for  drudgery.  Sweep  power 
is  hard  to  move,  cumbersome,  and  usually  requires 
the  exposure  of  its  operators  to  every  storm.      The 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


35 


36  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

water  wheel  is  of  very  restricted  application.  It  may 
easily  fail  in  dry  weather  and,  at  best,  cannot  be 
moved  about.  Wind  mills  are  objectionable  for  the 
same  reason;  also  from  the  unreliable  nature  of  their 
motive  force.  Steam  alone  has  been  the  only  serious 
competitor  of  the  horse  in  general  farm  work ;  still  it 
is  not  by  any  means  the  ideal  farm  power. 

5.  The  Ideal  Farm  Power. — Much  of  the  farmer's 
work  is  done  in  short  runs  and  at  many  different 
places.  His  ideal  power  must  be  ready  at  a  moment's 
notice  and  must  not  cost  anything  to  maintain  except 
wdiile  in  use.  It  must  be  safe,  reliable,  easy  to  operate 
and  portable ;  not  easily  disturbed  by  weather  condi- 
tions ;  available  at  any  place,  indoors  or  out.  Elec- 
tricit}^  might  avail  for  all  of  this  excepting  portability, 
were  it  more  generally  to  be  obtained  upon  the  farm. 
It  usually  is  not,  unless  produced  by  the  borrowed 
energy  of  steam  or  gasoline  engine  at  a  good  deal  of 
waste  in  transmission  or  in  transforming  mechanical 
to  electrical  energy. 

6.  The  One  Best  Answer. — The  gasoline  engine  is 
the  only  pow^er  at  the  present  time  that  has  answ^ered 
all  of  these  various  demands.  It  is  a  wonderfully 
flexible  power,  adapting  itself  to  all  conditions.  While 
the  teams  are  being  fed  the  engine  may  be  started 
upon  a  day's  run  at  the  feed  mill ;  then  the  operator 
is  free  to  go  back  to  breakfast.  No  fuel  is  being  used, 
as  is  the  case  with  a  steam  boiler,  while  steam  is 
raised.  The  operator  needs  no  greater  mechanical 
training  than  should  be  considered  necessary  to 
properly  run  a  binder.  If  power  is  needed  in  the 
kitchen  to  operate  the  washing  machine  two  men  can 
pick  the  engine  up  and  take  it  there.  If  w^anted  in 
the  farthest  corner  of  the  wood  lot  it  can  be  set  on 
the  farm  w^agon  and  conveyed  there  without  the  neces- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


37 


sity  of  a  second  or  third  trip  for  water  tank  and  fuel; 
neither  is  there  a  trail  of  feed-wires  to  erect.  The 
driest  and  calmest  weather  does  not  disturb  it,  nor 
does  it  break  away  from  its  moorings  in  the  fiercest 
wand.  It  can  be  obtained  in  ^  horse  power  sizes  if 
required,  while  five  thousand  horse  power  engines 
are  in  successful  operation.  It  works  properly  in 
zero  weather  or  excessive  heat  and  functions  no  mat- 
ter Avhat  the  mercury  registers.    . 


Fig.  3.— The  Call  of  the  Field   for   Power  Best  Met  by  Modern 
Gas  Tractor. 


7.     What  It  is  Actually  Doing  in  the  Field. — The 

most  convincing  argument  in  the  world  is  achieve- 
ment. Let  us  see  what  the  gasoline  engine  has 
actually  done ;  what  it  is  now  doing  on  the  farm.  In 
parts  of  the  West  where  best  known,  it  is  driving  the 
steam  tractor  from  the  field;  is  plowing,  harrowing 
and  seeding  all  in  one  operation,  by  the  square  mile 
instead  of  by  the  acre,  and  is  doing  the  work  better, 
as  well  as  quicker  and  cheaper,  than  horse  power  can 
do  it.  It  is  harvesting  the  grain  when  the  fields  are 
too  soft  to  carry  the  ordinary  binder  and  when   the 


38  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the-Farm 

steam  tractor  would  be  helpless ;  then,  after  thresh- 
ing, it  is  conveying  a  part  to  market  and  converting 
the  balance  into  the  most  available  form  for  feeding 
cattle.  It  is  loading  hay  in  the  fields  and  then  un- 
loading it  in  the  barns  or  placing  it  in  stacks.  With- 
out fear  of  hunger  or  thirst,  it  turns  away  from  its 
source  of  supplies  and  requires  no  procession  of  fuel 
and  water  wagons  to  follow  upon  its  trail.  If  the 
season  is  short  or  the  weather  threatening,  it  turns 
the  night  into  day  with  its  own  headlight  and  lives 
its  working  life  in  twenty-four-hour  days  as  cheer- 
fully as  in  periods  of  eight  or  ten.  Where  necessary 
it  has  run  without  stopping  from  ^Monday  morning 
until  Saturday  night  with  hardly  an  hour's  attention 
during  the  entire  time. 

8.  As  General  Utility  Man.— The  gasoline  engine 
is  irrigating  fields  and  putting  on  the  finishing  touches 
of  success  where  drought  and  failure  threatened.  It 
is  annually  saving  to  the  world  thousands  of  dollars 
worth  of  fruit  from  the  ravages  of  fungus  and  insect. 
It  is  digging  the  farmer's  post-holes ;  it  is  cutting  his 
wood  and  hauling  it  to  the  sheds.  It  is  taking  out 
of  farm  life  much  of  that  drudgery  Avhich  destroys 
human  life  more  through  dreariness  than  through  ex- 
pended energy.  Perhaps  its  greatest  value  is  in  the 
every-day,  humble  occupations,  and  from  these  it 
never  shirks. 

9.  In  the  Kitchen.— Unlike  the  general  run  of 
labor-saving  implements]  the  work  of  the  gasoline 
engine  is  not  completed  in  the  field.  It  runs  the 
washer  and  wringer  for  the  housewife  with  ease, 
pumps  the  water  for  her,  does  the  churning,  skims  the 
milk,  and  has  even  been  known  to  sweep  the  floor, 
clean  the  carpet,  wash  the  windows  and  the  dinner 
dishes.     In   numberless  ways,  after   doing  the  heavy 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  39 

field  work,  it  has  lightened  the  burden  for  some  tired 
or  semi-invalid  housewife  and  added  that  touch  of 
leisure  or  of  beauty  to  the  house  or  lawn  so  dear  to 
the  heart  of  the  farm  girl. 

10.  With  the  Boy  of  the  Farm. — Between  the  gaso- 
line engine  and  the  boy  of  the  farm  there  seems  to  be 
a  special  bond  of  sympathy  that  removes  from  the 
latter  those  terrors  of  wood-pile  and  grindstone  that 
drove  his  older  brother  from  the  farm.  It  silences 
the  call  of  the  city  by  rendering  farm  life  the  more 
attractive  of  the  two.  The  boy  is  progressive  unless 
his  ambition  is  crushed  out  with  hard  work.  His 
school  life  feeds  his  ambition  and  the  farm  must  either 
keep  up  with  his  love  of  progress  or  he  will  grow 
away  from  it.  The  engine  is  the  boy's  confidant  and 
friend,  for  it  develops  in  him  that  love  of  machinery 
upon  which  is  based  the  world's  achievements. 

11.  The  Hired  Man  Problem. — Modern  farm  work 
has  outgrown  the  capacities  of  a  single  pair  of  hands. 
The  hired  man  is  a  necessity;  but  where  the  number 
of  places  needing  him  is  so  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
supply  of  desirable  men,  it  is  but  natural  that  the 
farm  which  is  best  equipped  for  the  elimination  of 
drudgery  is  most  attractive  to  the  most  progressive 
men.  The  engine  is  making  it  more  desirable  by  mak- 
ing it  more  efficient ;  by  shifting  the  drudgery  of 
physical  routine  to  the  alertness  of  applied  intelli- 
gence; for  drudgery  always  dulls  the  intellect  and 
produces  the  lowest  form  of  efficiency. 

12.  The  Greatest  Mission  of  All. — The  gasoline  en- 
gine has  done  all  this ;  it  is  doing  still  more.  Many 
of  to-day's  important  industrial  problems  originate 
upon  the  farm  and  depend  upon  its  productiveness,  its 
extension,  and  its  life  for  their  solution.  As  the  pro- 
portion of  workers   remaining  on   the  farm   becomes 


40 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


less,  their  importance  to  those  who  have  left  it  be- 
comes greater,  and  nothing  raises  the  standard  of  civil- 
ization in  any  community  so  quickly  as  a  decrease  in 
the  cost  of  power ;  a  conserving  of  human  life  by  sur- 
rounding its  workers  with  better  conditions,  which 
have  been  robbed  of  drudgery  and  no  longer  dwarf  the 
intellectual  man.  The  highest  form  of  conservation 
applies  to  the  world's  men  and  women  more  than  to 
her  raw  material.     Manual  labor  has  become  too  slow 


Fig.  4.— The  Alan  With  the  Hoe  of  To-day. 

and  it  accomplishes  too  little ;  it  cannot  keep  up  with 
the  demand.  The  only  true  economy  in  the  use  of 
human  energy  lies  in  putting  it  to  some  more  produc- 
tive work  than  that  a  machine  can  do  as  w^ell  and 
twenty  times  as  fast.  The  true  place  for  the  man  him- 
self is  at  the  controlling  lever,  where  more  than  auto- 
matic machine  action  is  needed  and  where  human 
intelligence  rules  supreme.  This  wonderfully  uni- 
versal   and    flexible    power    is    placing    the    modern 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  41 

farmer's  work  on  a  higher  plane  and  is  turning  former 
hit-or-miss  methods  of  farming  into  a  definite  science. 

In  its  one  expression,  the  automobile,  it  has  given 
farm  intelligence  its  rightful  place  in  the  social  world. 
It  has  broken  down  the  false  and  undesirable  social 
barriers  that  formerly  existed  between  town  and  coun- 
try life  and  which,  in  a  great  measure,  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  the  unpopularity  of  farm  life  among  both 
city  and  country  young  people.  To-day  the  best 
schools  and  lecture  halls  are  placed  within  reach  of 
the  farm  door  and  country  youth,  surrounded  at  last 
by  environments  it  craved,  has  made  the  most  of 
them.  After  the  hour  of  intellectual  enjoyment  they 
return  to  the  farm  still  loyal  to  it,  but  with  new  ideals 
and  a  broader  appreciation  of  life. 

The  farm  house  itself,  stripped  of  its  atmosphere  of 
drudgery  and  grinding  toil,  becomes  an  actual  home 
where  culture  is  no  longer  impossible.  Out  of  the 
added  leisure  springs  an  influence  of  affection  and  re- 
spect that  makes  the  man  live  a  better  life  because  of 
the  home  life  from  which  the  boy  received  his  training. 


CHAPTER    11. 

THE  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION   ENGINE. 

13.  The  Principle. — An  ordinary  shot  gun,  at  the 
moment  of  discharge,  dehvers  a  pressure  of  about  four- 
teen tons  against  the  load  before  it.  If  we  multiply 
this  pressure  by  the  length  of  the  barrel — that  is,  by 
the  distance  through  which  the  pressure  is  exerted — 
we  have  the  working  energy  that  the  gun  can  deliver 
from  one  impulse.  Three  hundred  such  impulses  a 
minute  would  multiply  the  amount  of  working  energy 
or  power  by  that  amount.  It  is  probable  that  the  gun, 
in  one  of  its  earlier  types,  was  the  first  internal  com- 
bustion engine  ever  put  to  practical  use.  Such  a  de- 
structive force  could  not  be  applied  to  machinery,  but 
it  set  men  to  thinking  that  the  principle  so  powerful 
in  the  destruction  of  life  might  be  made  to  aid  in  more 
peaceful  occupations. 

14.  The  First  Engine. — Two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  ago  the  Abbe  d'Hautefeuille,  a  French  chemist, 
began  to  develop  the  idea  and,  about  1680,  an  engine 
of  this  sort  was  actually  built.  It  was  not  a  success, 
for  it  required  delicate  mechanism  to  feed  solid  powder 
in  suitable  amounts  and  at  regular  intervals  to  the 
combustion  chamber,  and  the  grease,  soot  and  sticky 
residue  soon  put  this  out  of  working  condition. 

15.  Other  Attempts. — Other  attempts,  usually  with 
some  explosive  gas  that  could  be  more  readily  fed 
than  powder,  were  experimented  w^ith,  but  it  was  not 
until  i860  that  a  practical  working  engine  was  brought 

42 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  43 

out.  This  was  the  Lenoir  engine,  in  which  many  of 
the  features  used  to-day  had  a  rude  beginning ;  but  the 
expense  of  operating  it  was  so  great  that  its  manu- 
facture was  soon  discontinued.  This,  of  course,  was 
before  the  day  of  gasoline. 

16.  The  First  Real  Success. — The  Otto  engine, 
brought  out  two  years  later  by  a  young  German,  is 
generally  considered  the  beginning  of  the  gas  engine 
industry,  although,  during  the  five-year  interval  be- 
tween his  first  production  and  the  engine  that  finally 
made  him  famous,  several  other  styles,  of  greater  or 
less  merit,  were  announced.  These  partial  successes, 
although  crude  and  somewhat  unreliable,  convinced 
the  world  that  there  was  an  assured  principle  behind 
them  and  that  the  war  implements  of  the  past  were 
indeed  to  be  beaten  into  the  plowshares  of  the  future. 

17.  What  Internal  Combustion  Includes. — All  heat 
engines  for  which  the  heat  is  developed  within  the 
engine  cylinder,  instead  of  in  a  boiler  or  some  outside 
receptacle,  are  internal  combustion  engines,  whether 
the  fuel  used  is  gunpowder,  gas,  gasoline,  kerosene  or 
alcohol.  For  convenience  all  are  usually  called  gas  en- 
gines, and  they  differ  little  in  construction  aside  from 
the  variations  required  to  get  the  different  forms  of 
fuel  into  the  cylinder.  Nearly  all  gasoline  engines  can 
be  operated  on  kerosene  by  slightly  changing  the  in- 
take system ;  while  the  true  gas  engine  differs  hardly 
at  all  from  the  others  except  in  substituting  a  device 
for  mixing  gas  and  air  in  place  of  the  appliances  re- 
quired to  convert  the  liquid  fuels  into  vapor. 

18.  The  Real  Source  of  Power. — There  is  a  com- 
mon belief  that  the  energy  hurled  against  the  piston 
of  a  gasoline  engine  acts  as  a  baseball  might  act  when 
thrown  against  some  movable  object.  This  is  hardly 
the  case.    The  impulse  against  the  piston  is  due  merely 


44  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

to  the  expansion  of  gases  under  the  intense  heat  gene- 
rated by  the  sudden  combustion,  the  temperature  at 
that  instant  rising  to  between  2,000°  and  3,000°  Fahr., 
or  enough  to  melt  the  iron  walls  if  provision  was  not 
made  for  quickly  cooling  them.  Only  about  twenty  to 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  this  heat  or  thermal  energy  can 
as  yet  be  directed  into  useful  channels,  the  rest  being 
wasted.  In  the  use  of  steam,  however,  there  is  even 
a  greater  waste,  while  animal  muscle,  though  it  makes 
use  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent,  of  its  entire  thermal  energy 
during  its  working  period,  represents  a  continuous 
loss  during  idleness  which  brings  the  total  waste  up 
to  even  higher  figures. 

19.  The  Complete  Cycle  Explained. — Unlike  the 
working  energy  of  the  horse,  the  gasoline  engine  pro- 
duces its  power  in  a  series  of  sudden  impulses  and, 
for  each  impulse,  must  accomplish  four  things :  First 
the  combustible  vapor  must  be  drawn  into  the  cylinder 
or  combustion  chamber ;  second,  this  must  be  com- 
pressed ;  third,  the  compressed  charge  must  be  fired ; 
and,  last,  the  burned  gases  must  be  driven  from  the 
cylinder  in  preparation  for  the  next  charge  of  vapor. 
The  complete  process  is  called  the  cycle.  Some  en- 
gines accomplish  this  with  one  revolution  of  the  crank, 
others  with  two.  As  perhaps  eighty  per  cent,  of  all 
engines  in  use  upon  the  farm  are  of  the  latter  class,  the 
actual  working  operations  of  the  two-revolution,  or 
four-cycle,  engine  will  be  first  described. 

20.  The  Four-Cycle  Engine. — In  the  illustration 
(Fig.  5),  the  piston,  P,  is  near  the  closed  end  or  head 
of  the  cylinder,  S ;  the  exhaust  valve,  B,  which  opens 
inward,  is  shown  as  closed,  and  during  the  suction 
stroke  is  held  shut  by  a  heavy  spring.  (See  top  of 
cylinder.  Fig  10.)  As  the  piston  descends  it  leaves  a 
vacuum  behind  it;  in  other  words,  creates  a  suction 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


45 


which  causes  the  intake  valve,  A,  to  open  and  admit 
a  charge  of  the  fuel  mixture  through  the  intake  pipe. 
The  second  or  return  stroke  of  the  piston  compresses 
the  air  and  gas  already  admitted,  closing  the  valve, 
A,  and  keeping  it  closed  against  the  escape  of  the  gas 
and  so  compressing  or  condensing  the  fuel  mixture 
to  the  small  chamber  between  the  end  of  the  piston  at 
its  highest  point  and  the  cylinder  head.  This  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  6. 


s  6 

Fig.   5. — Showing  Action  of  Inlet  Valve  on   Suction   Stroke. 

Fig.   6. — Piston   Nearing   End  of   Compression   Stroke.     Position 

Just    Prior   to   Ignition. 

When  the  piston  has  returned  to  its  outermost  point 
(or  a  little  before,  in  actual  practice),  the  highly  com- 
pressed fuel  is  fired  and  the  intense  heat  is  turned 
loose  upon  the  task  of  expanding  the  confined  gases 
and  hurling  them  against  the  piston,  now  just  entering 
upon  its  third  or  real  power  stroke,  illustrated  at  Fig, 
7.  The  impetus  received  from  this  carries  the  engine 
through  the  return  or  discharge  stroke  (Fig.  8),  dur- 
ing which  the  exhaust  valve,  3,  is  opened  by  mechani- 
cal means.  These  four  strokes  or  two  revolutions  of 
the  crank  shaft  complete  the  cycle  of  the  four-cycle 
engine. 


46 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


21.     Two-Cycle  and  Four-Cycle  Engines  Compared. 

— In  the  two-cycle  engine  all  of  these  operations  are 
accomplished  with  one  revolution  of  the  crank  shaft 
or  two  strokes  of  the  piston.  Theoretically  it  has 
several  important  advantages  over  the  four-cycle,  and 
may  in  time  become  the  more  popular  engine  of  the 
two.  As  it  gets  a  power  impulse  with  every  revolu- 
tion there  is  less  tendency  to  speed  variation  and  it 
does  not  require  such  heavy  balance  wheels  to  carry 


Fig.    7. — Piston    Descending   on    Power    Stroke. 
Fig.    8. — Depicting    Action    of    Exhaust    Vahe    on    Scavenging 

Stroke. 


it  through  the  intervening  periods.  For  the  same  rea- 
son the  power  is  considerably  increased  for  the  weight 
of  the  engine.  The  valves  are  in  part  or  wdiolly  dis- 
pensed with  and  a  long  chapter  of  trouble  from  their 
fouling  or  warping  with  the  heat  is  avoided.  The 
two-cycle  engine  has  fewer  moving  parts,  less  oppor- 
tunity for  wear  and  is  easier  to  understand.  Because 
of  the  greater  frequency  of  explosions  it  is  smioother 
running  than  a  four-cycle  engine  having  the  same  num- 
ber of  cylinders. 

22.     Why    the  Four-Cycle   Engine    Is    Preferred. — 
In  practice,  however,  it  has  not  been  found  possible 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  47 

to  rid  the  combustion  chamber  of  burned  gases  in  the 
small  part  of  a  stroke  the  two-cycle  engine  devotes 
to  that  work ;  neither  does  it,  in  the  hurried  blending 
of  operations,  take  in  a  proper  supply  of  fuel  and, 
though  it  takes  up  a  charge  twice  as  often,  it  does  not 
make  as  good  use  of  it  or  give  out  proportional  re- 
sults. So,  while  the  two-cycle  engine  gives  out  more 
power  for  a  given  number  of  pounds  of  engine,  the 
four-cycle  delivers  greater  power  from  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  fuel ;  and  fuel,  of  course,  represents  a  definite, 
continuous  expense.  The  crank  case,  too,  of  the 
simpler  two-cycle  motors  has  to  be  gas  tight  and  con- 
siderable difficulty  obtains  in  keeping  it  tight  after 
the  bearings  become  worn  around  the  shaft  which 
extends  through  them.  At  the  present  stage  of  de- 
velopment the  two-cycle  engine  has  a  great  number 
of  theoretical  advantages,  but  the  features  of  the  four- 
cycle power  plant  are  of  greater  importance  in  prac- 
tical  field  work. 

23.  Six-  and  Eight-cycle  Engines. — Six-cycle  en- 
gines have  been  manufactured  on  a  small  scale,  the 
two  extra  strokes  being  devoted  to  the  discharge  of 
all  burnt  gases  and  the  admission  of  pure  air.  Even 
an  eight-cycle  engine  was  recently  announced.  Their 
advantages,  however,  are  so  questionable  and  their  use 
so  much  of  an  experiment  that  at  the  present  time 
they  may  be  regarded  as  more  of  a  curiosity  than 
anything  of  practical  importance. 

24.  The  Vital  Parts. — Every  gasoline  engine  of 
whatever  form,  in  order  to  convert  the  energy  of  com- 
bustion into  working  energy,  must  have  a  receptacle 
for  the  confinement  and  explosion  of  the  gases ;  a 
means  of  introducing  the  fuel  to  its  place  in  proper 
quantities ;  a  system  of  firing  the  charge,  and  a  mov- 
able plunger  to  receive  the  impulse  and  convert  it  into 


48  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

mechanical  motion.  These  may  be  considered  the 
vital  parts  of  the  engine.  Then  there  is  the  frame  nec- 
essary for  its  support  and  for  keeping  the  other  parts 
together  in  their  relative  positions. 

25.  Other  Necessary  Components. — There  are  cer- 
tain parts  which  do  not  enter  directly  into  the  opera- 
tions of  the  cycle,  that  are  none  the  less  essential  to 
continuous  operation.  A  crank  shaft  is  necessary  to 
convert  sliding  into  rotary  motion  and  a  belt  pulley 


Fig.  9. — Sectional   View  of  Reeves  Horizontal  Engine,  Illustrat- 
ing All   Important  Parts   of   Modern   Gas   Motor. 

or  some  substitute  is  needed  to  transmit  it.  A  con- 
necting rod  between  piston  and  shaft  is  a  necessity ; 
also  a  piston  pin ;  some  form  of  governor  to  regulate 
the  speed  ;  valves  to  admit  and  retain  the  gases,  and 
a  timing  mechanism  to  regulate  the  operation  of  the 
various  parts  in  unison  with  each  other. 

26.  Conveniences  Which  Are  Necessities. — Some  of 
the  conveniences,  too,  are  so  essential  to  the  continu- 
ous operation  of  the  engine  that  they  may  almost  be 
considered    necessary,    although    they    take    no    direct 


Ti-iE  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  49 


EXHAUST  VALVE  SPRING  m5HfR'W 


EXHAUST  VALVE  LEVER 
VALVE  ROD  HEAD 


16NIT0R  TRIP  ROLLER 


IQNITOR  TRIP  CLAMP 


Fig.  10. — Sectional  View  of  Vertical  Engine,  Showing  Important 
Components. 

part  in  the  operations.  Chief  among  these  is  a  fuel 
tank,  without  which  the  time  of  the  operator  would 
be  constantly  taken  up  in  introducing  liquid  to  the 
intake  system.     Cooling  provisions  must  be  made  un- 


50  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

less  one  is  willing  to  shut  down  frequently  or  else  stand 
beside  the  engine  with  dipper  and  pail.  Except  for 
the  piston  lubricator,  no  other  oiling  provisions  are 
necessary  than  occasional  oil-holes  over  the  bearings, 
but  the  life  and  efficiency  of  both  engine  and  operator 
will  be  greatly  extended  by  the  use  of  lubricating  cups. 
Other  attachments  or  trimmings,  which  may  be  luxur- 
ies with  some  engines  or  in  certain  lines  of  work, 
become  actual  necessities  under  other  circumstances. 
27.  Other  General  Types. — Besides  the  vertical  and 
horizontal  engines,  there  are  several  kinds  made  for 
special  purposes  which  are  so  constant  in  some  char- 
acteristics with  all  makers  that  they  may  be  classed  as 
distinct  types ;  the  marine  engine,  made  without  base 
and  designed  particularly  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  motor  boat ;  the  automobile  engine,  also  lacking 
the  solid  base  that  characterizes  the  farm  and  factory 
engine  and  introducing  the  opposed  cylinder  principle 
in  which  two  or  four  cylinders  are  arranged  to  counter- 
act each  other's  vibration  imder  the  power  impulse, 
and  to  give  the  crank  shaft  an  impulse  in  the  one 
direction,  while  the  resistance  of  compression  is  being 
exercised  from  the  opposite  side.  The  motor-cycle 
engine  might  also  be  included  as  an  extreme  type  of 
light  and  baseless  engine,  though  the  last  word  of  all 
in  point  of  lightness  is  spoken  by  the  aviator's  motor, 
some  types  of  which  have  been  created  w^ith  a  capacity 
of  one  horse-power  per  3  pounds  weight.  With  the 
possible  exception  of  the  automobile  and  motor-cycle 
engines,  none  of  the  above  are  entitled  to  a  legitimate 
place  upon  the  farm. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    COMBUSTION    CHAMBER. 

28.  Functions  of  the  Cylinder. — The  primary  mis- 
sion of  the  engine  cyHnder  is  receptive  rather  than 
operative.  It  is  the  gun  barrel  into  which  the  fuel 
is  introduced  and  wherein  the  gases  are  expanded  by 
the  heat  of  combustion  until  they  exrert  a  tremendous 
energy  in  their  struggle  to  occupy  a  much  larger  space 
than  they  did  before  the  heating  took  place.  This 
energy,  hurled  against  a  movable  piston  at  one  end 
and  confined  between  rigid  walls  in  all  other  direc- 
tions, forces  the  sliding  metal  back  with  so  much 
energy  that  the  crank  shaft  to  which  it  is  attached  at 
the  outer  end  is  carried  past  its  center  and  far  upon 
the  return  stroke  against  the  burned-out  gases  which 
have  as  quickly  lost  most  of  their  heat  and  power 
of  resistance. 

A  second  service  of  the  cylinder  is  the  confinement 
of  the  fuel  gases  at  a  point  where  they  will  be  com- 
pacted by  the  up-stroke  of  the  piston  and  in  that 
compressed  form  fired  by  the  spark. 

29.  The  Influence  of  the  Cylinder  Upon  the  En- 
gine.— The  position  of  the  cylinder  determines 
whether  the  engine  is  to  be  horizontal  or  vertical  in 
form  and  fixes  in  a  great  measure  the  power  and  spe- 
cial line  of  work  to  which  it  will  be  best  adapted 
when  finished. 

In  this  chamber  all  operations  which  originate  or 
represent  force  are  transformed  into  power. 


52  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

30.  The  Best  Material. — The  best  gray  cast  iron 
is  now  favored  for  the  cyHnder.  This  is  an  iron 
which  contains  sufficient  graphitic  carbon,  that  is  uni- 
form of  texture,  and  which  is  reasonably  free  from 
phosphorus  and  sulphur.  Patches  of  light  and  dark 
grav  are  serious  defects,  as  they  indicate  a  difference 
in  texture  wdiich  may  result  in  uneven  expansion  un- 
der high  temperatures.  An  engine  cylinder  must 
stand  a  temperature  which  varies  from  about  normal 
to  very  little  below  the  melting  point  of  iron  and,  in 
order  to  expand  evenly,  must  be  of  absolutely  the 
same  material  in  all  its  parts.  Cheap  iron  may  look 
as  well  as  any  other,  but  it  will  contain  weak  places 
which  the  extremes  of  heat  and  pressure  developed  in 
the  cylinder  are  sure  to  find. 

31.  The  Work  of  the  Foundry. — Engine  cylinders 
must  be  well  cast.  Dirt  pockets  or  blow-holes  are  not 
permissible.  In  order  to  insure  prompt  cooling  the 
walls  have  to  be  as  thin  as  the  stress  upon  them  will 
permit,  and  such  thin  castings  have  to  be  poured  much 
hotter  than  heavier  pieces  in  order  to  prevent  the 
smaller  stream  of  metal  from  getting  too  sluggish 
to  fill  out  the  corners  of  the  mould  well.  At  this  stage 
of  engine  building  the  little  defects  must  be  particu- 
larly guarded  against,  the  air  bubble,  the  bit  of  un- 
fusible  foreign  matter,  the  sand  scale,  the  unfilled  cor- 
ner. Even  with  the  best  of  foundry  work,  a  good 
many  cylinders  that  come  from  the  mould  smooth  and 
seemingly  perfect  must  later  be  rejected  because  of 
defects  that  are  disclosed  by  the  lathe.  The  care  re- 
quired at  this  stage,  and  the  extra  cost  in  production 
it  sometimes  occasions,  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  by 
the  man  who  wants  to  buy  a  good  engine,  but  who  is 
inclined  to  be  unduly  influenced  by  a  low  price. 

32.  Boring    the    Cylinder. — Even    greater    care,    if 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  53 

anything,  is  needed  in  the  boring  and  finishing  of  the 
casting  and  a  good  many  inferior  engines  originate 
through  a  cheapening  of  this  process,  either  to  meet 
the  demand  for  a  low-priced  article  or  through  the 
practice  which  some  amateur  machinists  have  of  buy- 
ing the  castings  and  finishing  them  up  themselves. 

The  casting  to  be  bored  must  have  absolutely  rigid 
support :  there  must  be  no  spring.  The  bore  must  also 
be  a  true  circle  and  perfectly  centered  so  that  all  of 
the  wall  surface  will  be  of  uniform  thickness.  The 
first  cut  is  made  quite  heavy;  then  in  the  best  made 
engine  cylinders  the  casting  is  removed  from  the  lathe 
and  allowed  to  ''rest"  for  from  30  to  60  days ;  this  to 
allow  all  molecular  strains  and  stresses  to  "season 
out."  Then  a  second  cut  is  made,  very  much  lighter 
than  the  first  and  intended  mainly  to  remove  the  drill 
marks  of  the  coarser  tool.  Some  makers  follow  this 
by  a  third  cut,  which  is  exceedingly  fine.  The  final 
cut  is  followed  in  most  of  the  best  engines  with  a  fine 
emerv  wheel  revolving  at  a  very  high  speed  and  re- 
moving the  last  one-thousandth  of  an  inch  of  cut  with 
almost  mathematical  precision.  This  accuracy  must 
obtain  the  full  length  of  the  cylinder  and  the  bore 
must  not  vary  in  size  or  from  its  circular  form.  Be- 
cause of  the  vibration  set  up  in  the  grinding  machine 
by  the  high  speed  and  the  solidity  with  which  the 
work  must  be  held  against  the  tool  so  that  there  is 
no  springing  away  from  any  hard  spot  in  the  metal, 
it  is  very  necessary  that  the  machine  frame  be  rigid 
far  in  excess  of  the  requirements  for  such  seemingly 
light  work. 

A  few  manufacturers  argue  against  the  grinding 
method,  partly  on  account  of  its  cost  and  the  heavy 
machinery  required,  and  partly  because  of  the  possi- 
bility  that   particles  of   emery   and   abrading  powder 


54 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


may  remain  in  the  cylinder  walls  to  score  them  or  the 
piston  when  in  use.  ]\Iost  of  the  best  grade  engine 
cylinders,  though,  are  finished  in  this  manner.  What- 
ever process  is  used,  the  walls  should  be  left  entirely 
free  of  tool  or  chatter  marks,  and  with  a  mirror  sur- 
face. Fig.  II  illustrates  a  smooth,  absolutely  straight 
wall  (indicated  at  c),  as  it  should  be.  At  a  and  b  are 
shown  respectively  high  and  low  spots  caused  by  the 
springing  of  the  thin  cylinder  walls  as  the  boring  tool 


Fig.  II. — Illustrating  Defects  Liable  In  Boring  Cylinder.  Com- 
pare Defective  Spots  Shown  at  a  and  b  With  Perfect 
Wall   at   c. 


passed  over  hard  and  soft  places  in  the  metal.  Per- 
fect compression  can  never  be  obtained  in  a  cylinder 
like  that. 

A  ground  cylinder,  if  properly  finished,  gives  as 
nearly  perfect  results  as  we  can  hope  to  attain  and 
at  the  same  time  the  small  sharp  particles  of  the 
vitrified  grinding  wheel  do  their  work  by  means  of 
so  many  and  such  rapidly  moving  points  that  the 
walls  are  left  smooth  as  a  mirror  and  absolutely  true, 
since  there  is  practically  no  pressure  put  upon  them. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farai  55 

Lapping  and  all  forms  of  smoothing  out  with  powdered 
glass  or  other  abrasing  material,  while  fairly  effective 
if  well  done,  require  very  careful  cleaning,  as  any  of 
the  cutting  material  left  in  the  cylinder  w^ould  be 
likely  to  continue  its  work  of  scoring  upon  both 
cylinder  and  piston. 

33.  Severe  Duty  as  Combustion  Chamber. — Of  its 
several  functions,  that  of  combustion  chamber  is  more 
exacting  than  any  other  to  which  the  cylinder  is  sub- 
ject on  account  of  both  the  excessive  temperature  and 
the  pressure.  While  neither  of  these  can  be  very 
accurately  determined,  it  is  generally  considered  that 
an  initial  pressure  of  around  350  pounds  per  square 
inch  gives  the  most  economical  results,  while  it  is 
probable  that  at  the  moment  of  discharge  the  tempera- 
ture developed  inside  the  cylinder  varies  between  2,000 
and  3,000  degrees  Fahrenheit,  depending  a  great  deal 
upon  compression,  hotness  of  spark,  correctness  of 
the  mixture,  etc. 

34.  What  Compression  Is. — A  bit  of  gun  cotton, 
fluffed  into  a  light  mass,  may  be  ignited  without  danger 
on  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  same  mass,  confined 
in  the  barrel  of  a  gun,  would  hurl  a  charge  out  through 
the  muzzle  with  considerable  force.  In  the  one  case 
the  expansive  gases  are  free  to  escape  without  hin- 
drance. In  the  other  the  force  is  confined.  The 
amount  of  gas  is  the  same  in  both  cases  but  the  ex- 
pansion is  more  violent  in  its  results  because  of  the 
momentary  compression.  Let  us  now  ram  into  the 
gun  barrel  all  the  gun  cotton  that  can  be  crowded 
into  the  same  space  under  pressure ;  probably  several 
times  as  much  as  was  in  the  first  charge.  When  the 
gun  is  fired  we  have  several  times  the  quantity  of 
gas  expanding  suddenly  in  the  same  fixed  space 
and    the    firing    charge    is    either    hurled    out    w^th 


56  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

tremendous    energy    or    else    the    barrel    itself    must 
burst. 

35.  Compression  in  the  Gasoline  Engine. — When 
the  piston  of  the  gasoline  engine  has  reached  its  high- 
est or  inner  point  there  is  a  short  air  space  between 
it  and  the  end  of  the  cylinder,  usually  about  one-fifth 
of  the  entire  cylinder  volume.  If  we  now  opened  the 
inlet  valve  and  allow^ed  the  fuel  vapor  to  enter,  it 
w^ould  fill  this  space  until  the  internal  pressure  equaled 
that  of  the  air  on  the  outside,  or  about  14.7  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch ;  then  no  more  fuel  would  enter.  By  fir- 
ing this  charge,  that  is,  raising  the  temperature  to  the 
combustion  point,  the  gas  would  be  expanded  until 
it  occupied  several  times  its  original  volume  and  the 
pressure  or  forward  thrust  against  the  piston  would 
be,  we  Avill  say,  something  like  90  lbs.  per  square 
inch  of  surface.  This,  working  against  the  normal  at- 
mospheric pressure  of  14.7  lbs.,  would  leave  us  75  lbs. 
of  active  working  energy. 

Before  firing  the  charge  let  us  now,  with  the  intake 
valve  still  open,  advance  the  piston  to  the  outer  end 
of  its  stroke  and  so  increase  to  five  times  its  first 
dimensions  the  receptacle  for  fuel  gas.  This  greater 
area,  like  the  other,  fills  to  the  point  of  atmospheric 
pressure ;  then  we  turn  the  piston  back  to  the  end  of 
its  inner  stroke. 

36.  How  the  Charge  Is  Compressed. — As  soon  as 
the  gas  fills  the  cylinder  and  is  pressed  upon  by  the 
returning  piston  it  closes  the  intake  valve.  It  cannot 
escape  in  that  way.  The  rings  prevent  its  slipping 
out  between  the  cylinder  walls  and  the  piston.  It  is 
simply  forced  or  pressed  together  as  the  gun  cotton 
was  pressed,  until,  when  the  piston  is  at  the  end  of 
its  inner  stroke,  the  gas  has  been  compacted  into 
about  one-fifth  of  its  normal  volume  and  consequently 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  57 

is  struggling  to  escape  with  force  five  times  greater 
than  atmospheric  pressure  or  nearly  80  pounds  per 
square  inch.  We  now  fire  the  charge  and  the  ex- 
panding gases  call  for  nearly  five  times  greater  space 
than  before,  bringing  the  theoretical  w^orking  pressure 
hurled  against  each  square  inch  of  the  piston  head 
up  to  over  400  pounds.  Deducting  the  original  atmos- 
pheric pressure  from  this,  we  have  a  working  energy 
of  about  400  pounds  per  square  inch  of  piston  head 
surface. 

37.  Compression  Limits. — If  the  working  energy 
of  the  fuel  may  be  rendered  so  much  more  available 
by  a  moderate  compression  it  would  seem  that  we 
might  increase  our  power  almost  indefinitely  by  di- 
minishing the  clearance  volume  of  the  cylinder,  but 
in  practice  it  is  found  that  this  can  be  done  only 
within  moderate  limits.  After  a  certain  amount  of 
compression  has  been  done  the  resistance  of  the  gas 
becomes  so  great  that  it  uses  up  as  much  power  in 
compressing  it  as  we  gain  by  the  higher  compressed 
charge.  Of  still  greater  importance  is  the  fact  that 
the  compression  of  gas  introduces  considerable  heat 
and  the  moment  we  carry  this  process  beyond  a  cer- 
tain point  so  much  heat  is  generated  that  the  fuel  is 
fired  before  the  piston  reaches  its  proper  position.  In 
other  w^ords,  if  we  carry  the  compression  of  gasoline 
much  beyond  100  pounds,  the  charge  is  liable  to  be 
fired  against  the  ascending  piston  b}^  the  developed 
heat,  thus  reducing  instead  of  increasing  the  work- 
ing energy  of  the  engine  by  hurling  one  impulse 
against  another. 

38.  Where  Higher  Compression  Is  Useful. — Where 
alcohol  is  used  as  a  fuel  it  is  found  that  the  compres- 
sion may  be  run  much  higher  without  danger  of  pre- 
ignition  ;  in  fact,  an  alcohol  engine  to  work  efficiently 


58  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farai 

requires  a  compression  of  something  like  140  lbs.  per 
square  inch. 

It  has  been  suggested,  too,  and  has  been  a  dream 
with  gasoline  engine  men,  that  some  means  of  shift- 
ing adjustment  might  be  introduced  whereby  an  igni- 
tion temperature  would  just  be  generated  at  the  point 
where  the  charge  ought  to  be  fired.  This  would  do 
away  with  the  necessity  of  batteries,  magneto,  or  any 
other  firing  device.  Promising  experiments  have  been 
conducted  along  these  lines,  but  as  yet  the  promises 
have  only  been  realized  in  part. 

39.  Compression  Gains  and  Losses. — Since  inter- 
nal combustion  engines  are  heat  engines,  and  the  heat 
we  are  obliged  to  dissipate  in  order  to  protect  the 
cylinder  and  its  associates  is  wasted  energy,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  smaller  the  surface  we  are  forced  to  cool 
without  sacrifice  of  temperature  the  more  we  gain  in 
efficiency.  This  is  another  reason  why  compression 
adds  to  the  efficiency  of  the  engine,  the  real  combus- 
tion chamber  being  practically  confined  to  that  small 
portion  of  the  cylinder  into  which  the  fuel  is  com- 
pressed at  the  moment  the  charge  is  fired. 

'Tt  has  been  shown  that  an  ideal  efficiency  of  33 
per  cent,  for  38  lbs.  compression  will  increase  to  40 
per  cent,  for  66  lbs.,  and  43  per  cent,  for  88  lbs.  com- 
pression. On  the  other  hand,  greater  compression 
means  greater  explosive  pressure  and  greater  strain 
on  the  engine  structure,  which  wall  probably  retain, 
in  future  practice,  the  compression  between  the  limits 
of  40  and  80  lbs. 

'Tn  experiments  made  by  Dugald  Clerk  in  England, 
with  a  combustion  chamber  equal  to  0.6  of  the  space 
swept  by  the  piston,  with  a  compression  of  38  lbs., 
the  consumption  of  gas  was  24  cubic  feet  per  indi- 
cated horse-power  per  hour.     With   0.4  compression 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  59 

space  and  61  lbs.  compression,  the  consumption  of  gas 
was  20  cubic  feet  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour ; 
and  with  0.34  compression  space  and  87  lbs.  compres- 
sion, the  consumption  of  gas  fell  to  14.8  cubic  feet 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour — the  actual  effi- 
ciencies being  respectively  17,  21  and  25  per  cent." 
Gardner  D.  Hiscox,  in  "Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil 
Engines." 

40.  Clearance. — Between  the  top  of  the  piston  at 
the  instant  of  its  extreme  inner  stroke  and  the  closed 
end  of  the  cylinder  is  a  space  into  which  the  charge 
is  compressed.  This  is  the  "clearance"  of  the  engine 
and  it  usually  amoimts  to  about  twenty  or  .twenty-five 
per  cent,  of  the  combustion  chamber,  the  exact  per- 
centage of  course  determining  the  compression  of  the 
engine,  provided  rings  and  valves  are  doing  their 
work  properly. 

41.  Faulty  Compression. — While  a  gasoline  engine 
can  be  operated  without  compression,  it  is  always  done 
to  the  tune  of  extravagantly  wasted  fuel  and  without 
the  satisfaction  of  accomplishment.  Such  an  engine 
has  very  little  power,  so  it  is  evident  that  any  faults 
of  compression  are  eliminated  only  at  the  expense  of 
both  the  fuel  tank  and  the  belt  wheel.  Faulty  com- 
pression is  generally  due  to  a  worn  or  badly  seating 
valve  or  piston  ring,  or  to  some  leak  in  cylinder  walls 
or  piston.  Blow  holes  in  the  castings  will  cause  it ; 
so  will  rings  that  are  rough  upon  the  edges  or  either 
too  narrow  or  too  wide  for  the  grooves  they  occupy. 
If  the  ring  is  too  wide  the  edges  bind  in  the  groove 
and  keep  it  from  opening  freely  against  the  cylinder 
walls ;  if  too  narrow,  so  that  there  is  a  little  end  play 
in  the  groove,  there  is  an  instant  of  time  at  the  dead- 
center  of  the  inner  stroke  when  the  ring  pressure  shifts 
from  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  groove,  at  the  in- 


6o  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

stant  that  the  piston  reverses  its  motion.  During  this 
period  the  ring  touches  neither  side  and  permits  a  brief 
but  many  times  repeated  leakage  of  highly  compressed 
gas  or  of  the  explosive  force  w^hich  has  just  been  de- 
livered against  the  piston.  Dirty,  gummy  rings  cause 
similar  trouble.  A  ring  must  work  absolutely  free, 
but  without  any  reciprocating  or  end  motion,  in  order 
to  do  its  work  properly. 

42.  Testing  Compression. — The  compression  of  a 
five  H.  P.  engine  should  as  a  rule  be  too  great  to 
permit  of  the  wheel  being  turned. over  by  hand  with- 
out opening  the  relief  cock  in  the  cylinder,  while  even 
a  one  and  two  horse  engine  should  put  vip  stiff  oppo- 
sition. By  holding  the  piston  of  the  engine  at  the  end 
of  the  compression  stroke  for  a  few  moments  the 
amount  of  compression  leakage  at  the  most  critical 
point  may  be  determined  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  this  test  alone  does  not  determine  the  oper- 
ating compression  of  the  engine,  as  many  leaks 
which  do  not  appear  at  this  point  may  cause  trou- 
ble at  some  other  place  or  while  the  parts  are  in 
motion. 

A  hissing  sound  is  indication  of  a  leak  somewhere 
and,  by  listening  at  the  inner  and  outer  end,  the  leak 
can  frequentl}^  be  located  at  once.  If  it  comes  from 
the  lower  or  open  end  of  the  cylinder  the  fault  is 
somewhere  about  the  piston,  its  rings  or  the  castings ; 
or  perhaps  a  worn  or  scored  cylinder  wall,  or  one  that 
is  not  true.  If  the  sound  seems  to  come  from  the 
other  end  of  the  cylinder,  test  the  exhaust  valve  and 
see  that  it  seats  properly;  also,  that  the  stem  works 
easily  in  the  guide.  Make  this  test  while  the  engine 
is  at  running  heat,  then  try  the  intake  valve.  A  little 
soapy  water  may  sometimes  help  in  determining  the 
leak,  the  escaping  gas  creating  bubbles.     Sometimes 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  6i 

a  broken  thread  on  the  spark  plug  will  cause  a  leak 
around  its  base. 

If  the  cylinder  and  head  are  cast  in  two 
separate  pieces  the  joint  and  packing  between 
them  should  be  carefully  examined.  In  a  two- 
cycle  engine  worn  crank  shaft  bearings  are  as 
troublesome  avenues  of  leakage  as  the  piston 
rings  in  a  four-cycle  engine.  Where  the  leak 
is  external  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  locate,  but  in 
case  of  an  internal  leak  into  an  enclosed  crank  case,  a 
water  jacket,  a  muffler  or  some  other  hidden  part  of 
the  engine,  it  sometimes  becomes  quite  a  puzzling 
problem,  but  the  search  should  be  persisted  in  until 
the  trouble  is  found,  as  otherwise  serious  damage  may 
result. 

Leaks  in  multi-cylinder  engines  are  more  difficult 
to  locate  than  in  a  single  cylinder,  the  compression 
strokes  frequently  overlapping  or  blending  together. 
This  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  removing  the  spark 
plugs  of  all  but  one  cylinder ;  then  turn  the  wheel  over 
and  note  the  compression  in  that.  If  satisfactory,  re- 
move the  remaining  plug  and  place  it  in  one  of  the 
other  cylinders,  which  may  then  be  tested,  until  all 
are  tried.  The  source  of  leak  once  located,  the  remedy 
is  self-evident. 

43.  Decreasing  the  Clearance. — The  crank  shaft 
bearings  always  wear  away  most  rapidly  on  the  side 
opposite  the  cylinder  and  through  wear  the  piston 
may  be  drawn  farther  out  and  so  increase  the  clear- 
ance or  compression  space  and  weaken  the  pressure. 
Metal  disks  have  sometimes  been  bolted  to  the  end  of 
the  piston  in  order  to  overcome  this  but  the  remedy  is 
objectionable,  as  are  all  other  remedies  wdiich  intro- 
duce bolts  into  the  combustion  chamber.  Another  way 
is  to  lengthen  the  connecting  rod,  but  it  would  seem 


62 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


that  the  simplest  and  cheapest  method  would  be  to 
restore  the  worn  bearings  to  the  condition  thought 
necessary  by  the  designer.  Changes  of  this  sort  should 
be  made  with  a  good  deal  of  caution  by  the  amateur 
engine  operator,  but  when  one  is  certain  the  compres- 


EXHAUST  PORT 
J 


Fig.   12. — Sectional  View  of  I.  H.  C.  Engine  Cylinder,  Showing 
Water   Jacket   and   Vahe    System. 

sion  is  really  defective  one  should  not  hesitate  to  adopt 
any  necessary  remedy. 

44.  Increasing  Power  by  Decreasing  Clearance. — 
While  less  clearance  means  greater  compression  and 
more  power  within  certain  limits,  there  will  come  a 
time  when  the  extra  power  generated  will  be  more 
than  absorbed  in  making  the  extra  compression,  even 
if  the  fuel  used  does  not  limit  the  point  to  which  the 
process  may  be  carried.  Up  to  this  limit,  however, 
or  to  the  point  wdiere  the  increased  temperature  causes 
pre-ignition,  this  resistance  against  the  ascent  of  the 
piston,  or  negative  stroke,  as  it  is  termed,  is  not  with- 
out its  use.  Were  the  power  stroke  of  the  engine 
allowed  to  exert  its  force  entirely  against  the  solid 
mechanism,  the  strain  and  jerky  effect  w^ould  be  far 
more  pronounced  than   it   is  when   finally   caught  in 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  63 

part  against   this  elastic  cushion  of  compressed  gas. 

45.  Lubricating  the  Cylinder. — The  requirements 
which  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  must  meet  are  so  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  steam  engine  cylinder  that 
to  use  the  very  best  oil  suitable  for  the  latter  might 
])e  worse  for  a  gas  engine  than  to  use  none  at  all. 
In  the  first  place,  the  temperature  of  the  combustion 
chamber  is  so  great  that  ordinary  oil  is  burned  up  at 
once,  before  it  has  a  chance  to  do  its  work  as  a 
lubricant.  Then  the  combustion  leaves  a  residue  of 
carbon  and  dirt  which  in  themselves  do  harm.  Steam 
engine  cylinder  oil  must  not  be  used  in  the  gasoline 
engine  cylinder,  even  for  a  short  run.  To  this  rule 
there  is  positively  no  exception;  at  least  not  for  the 
novice.  The  subject  of  proper  and  improper  oil  is 
fully  discussed  in  another  chapter.  A  word  here  is 
sufficient  in  explanation  of  how  the  oil  should  be 
introduced. 

All  parts  of  the  cylinder  requiring  oil  are  usually 
reached  through  the  lubricator  which  oils  the  piston 
and  its  rings,  the  oil  dropping  or  being  forced  through 
its  channel  upon  the  piston  rings  which  scrape  and 
spread  it  over  the  surrounding  surface  of  the  cylinder 
against  which  they  press.  No  other  part  of  the  sur- 
face needs  oil. 

The  system  of  oiling  the  cylinder  through  the  fuel 
mixture,  wdiich  is  becoming  more  and  more  popular, 
is  fully  described  under  its  proper  head. 

46.  Carbonizing,  Its  Cause  and  Effects. — The  best 
of  oil,  under  the  test  which  is  placed  upon  it  by 
gasoline  engine  temperatures,  is  very  quickly  con- 
sumed, though  not,  in  the  case  of  good  oil,  until  it 
has  had  time  to  accomplish  its  mission.  The  best  of 
oil  contains  some  carbon,  w^hich  is  released  by  the 
process  of  combustion  and  spreads  itself  over  all  sur- 


64  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

faces  to  which  it  has  access,  the  piston  head,  the  rings, 
the  cylinder  walls  and  combustion  chamber,  the  valves 
and  the  muffler.  A  glance  into  the  muffler  of  an  en- 
gine wdiich  has  been  long  in  operation  will  show  the 
extent  and  nature  of  this  deposit.  Inside  the  cylinder, 
however,  it  is  subject  to  the  alternate  influence  of 
moisture  and  baking  heat,  and  eventually  a  hard,  slaty 
shell  may  be  formed  in  some  parts  while  in  others  the 
deposit  w^ll  be  more  of  a  tarry,  sticky  nature.  In  either 
of  these  forms  the  free  action  of  the  valves  or  the 
rings  is  likely  to  be  interfered  with.  This  alone  occa- 
sions many  gas  and  pressure  leaks. 

Scaly  projections  of  this  coating  are  liable  to  be- 
come in  part  detached  and  to  so  stand  out  that  they 
receive  the  entire  heat  impulse  without  being  in  con- 
tact with  any  cooling  influence.  In  this  condition 
they  quickly  become  heated  to  a  dull  red  and,  after 
the  fuel  charge  is  inhaled  by  the  down  stroke  of  the 
piston,  as  compression  begins  and  the  temperature  in- 
creases on  the  upstroke,  these  living  coals  may  fire 
the  charge  against  the  ascending  piston,  not  only 
wasting  the  power  impulse,  but  extending  it  directly 
against  the  proper  working  of  the  engine.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  common  causes  of  pre-ignition. 

This  heavy  scale  of  hard  carbon,  too,  may  interfere 
seriously  with  the  cooling  of  the  cylinder  walls  and 
cause  heating  of  piston  or  cylinder.  Carbon  in  the 
cylinder  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  troubles  with 
which  the  gasoline  engine  man  has  to  contend. 

The  lubricating  oil  is  not  the  only  source  of  these 
cylinder  deposits.  An  excess  of  oil  may  cause  them, 
or  too  much  gasoline.  All  the  gasoline  vapor  wdiich 
fails  to  find  sufficient  oxygen  from  the  air  supply  to 
produce  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide  and  water  will 
deposit  free  carbon,  providing  the  heat  is  great  enough 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  65 


Fig.  13.— Sectional  View  of  Air  Cooled  Motor.  Figures  De- 
note Following  Parts  :  12 — Crankshaft.  14— Oil  Pipe.  19 — 
Petcock  for  Compression  Release.  20 — Valve  Spring  Key. 
21 — Valve  Washer.  22 — Inlet  Valve  Spring.  23 — Inlet 
Valve  Guide.  24— Intake  Valve.  25 — Valve  Cage.  26 — 
Sparkplug.  27 — Sparkplug  Porcelain.  28 — Exhaust  Valve. 
29— Exhaust  Valve  Seat.  30 — Exhaust  Valve  Guide.  31— 
Exhaust  Valve  Stem.  2>^ — Exhaust  Spring.  34 — Exhaust 
Operating  Rod.  35 — Cam  Roller.  36 — Timer  Cover  Screw. 
Zl — Contact  Spring.  38 — Timer  Advance  Lever.  41 — Tim- 
ing Pinion.  42 — Cam  Gear.  43 — Drain  Cock.  44 — Pipe 
Regulating  Oil  Level.  45 — Gear  Operating  Shaft.  46--Cam- 
sliaft  for   Exhaust.     48— Piston.     50 — Oil   Groove. 


66  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

to  break  up  the  gasoline  formation.     To  this  silicon 
and  various  impurities  of  the  air  are  added. 

47.  Symptoms  of  Carbon  Deposit. — Pre-ignition  is 
one  symptom  of  carbon.  It  is  announced  by  the 
knocking  of  the  engine  the  same  as  when  the  spark 
is  advanced  too  much.  Back-firing  is  frequently 
caused  by  carbon  holding  the  valve  from  closing.  Mis- 
firing may  be  occasioned  by  carbon  short-circuiting 
spark  plugs  or  by  the  gap  between  the  points  being  en- 
tirely closed.  Usually  only  a  part  of  the  current  is 
short-circuited;  then  the  spark  is  weak  and  the  igni- 
tion irregular.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  symp- 
toms of  carbon  deposit  is  the  presence  of  plenty  of 
power  at  high  speeds  but  little  when  speed  is  re- 
duced and  load  thrown  on.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  carbon  causes  pre-ignition  when  the  speed  is 
slow  while  at  high'  speed  an  advance  of  the  firing 
instant  is  not  great  enough  to  catch  the  rapidly  mov- 
ing piston  on  the  up-stroke  with  an}^  retarding  force. 

48.  Cleaning  the  Cylinder. — At  least  once  or  twice 
a  year  the  piston  should  be  taken  from  the  cylinder 
and  all  carbon  deposits  thoroughly  removed.  If  the 
head  is  removable  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter 
to  thoroughly  clean  all  parts.  Kerosene  is  one  of  the 
best  liquid  cleansers.  Do  not  use  gasoline,  as  it  de- 
stroys the  smooth  mirror  glaze  with  which  the  iron 
walls  have  become  polished  and  leaves  the  original 
porous  surface  of  new  iron.  Do  nothing  to  destroy 
or  break  up  this  glaze.  Besides,  gasoline  is  not  as 
good  a  solvent  of  carbon  as  kerosene,  which  is  less 
harsh  in  action. 

When  the  deposits  are  very  hard,  scraping  may 
have  to  be  resorted  to.  This  should  be  done  thor- 
oughly but  with  care  not  to  injure  the  surface  of  the 
cylinder  or  to  scratch  the  walls.     Particularly  should 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  ^'j 

care  be  taken  to  remove  all  loosened  scales  and  par- 
ticles, if  necessary  using  kerosene  in  a  closed  end 
cylinder.  A  cylinder  should  seldom  be  opened  up. 
When  it  is  done,  let  the  cleaning  be  thorough.  Note 
specially  the  nature  of  the  deposits  and  so  form  an 
estimate  of  the  brand  of  lubricant  in  use. 

49.  Removing  the  Cylinder. — So  many  different 
patterns  exist,  only  the  most  general  rules  can  be  given 
for  this.  All  pipes  should  first  be  disconnected  from 
the  cylinder  casting,  water  pipe,  exhaust  pipe,  etc., 
then  the  bolts  holding  it  to  the  crank-case  may  be 
loosened  and  cylinder  removed ;  or,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  loosen  and  remove  piston.  In  either  case  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  piston  or  rings. 
If  the  head  is  removable  place  that  and  the  nuts  which 
are  taken  off  wnth  it  in  a  bath  of  kerosene  while 
scraping  and  cleaning  the  cylinder  walls.  Copper, 
soft  steel  or  bronze  tools  should  be  used  for  scrap- 
ing. Never  insert  chisel  or  other  tool  between  head 
and  cylinder  to  pry  the  head  loose. 

50.  Reassembling  the  Engine. — In  rebolting  the 
closed  end  cylinder  to  its  base,  or  the  removable  head 
to  the  cylinder  care  should  always  be  taken  to  avoid 
throwing  excessive  strain  on  any  one  bolt  alone. 
Tighten  all  up  together,  or  nearly  so,  and  avoid  danger 
of  a  cracked  casting. 

To  return  the  piston  and  rings  to  the  cylinder  easily, 
compress  each  ring  tightly  to  its  groove  and  fasten 
it  there  by  wrapping  each  with  a  separate  coil  of  soft 
copper  wire.  Insert  piston  head  in  cylinder  and  ad- 
vance carefully.  As  each  coil  of  wire  is  reached  it  is 
forced  ahead  of  the  end  of  cylinder,  toward  the  lower 
end  of  piston  after  the  ring  has  been  entered  into 
place  enough  to  be  secured.  Finally  the  wires  will 
all  be   slipped  down   upon   the   connecting   rod,   from 


68 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


^ 


Oh 
> 

d 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  69 

which  they  may  be  readily  removed.  This  saves  much 
trouble  in  compressing  and  holding  in  place  several 
unruly  and  delicate  rings. 

51.  Packing  the  Cylinder  Head. — Blown-out  or 
defective  cylinder  packing  has  been  the  cause  of  as 
much  profanity  among  gas  engine  users  probably  as 
any  one  source  of  trouble,  not  even  barring  the  igni- 
tion system.  The  avoidance  of  this  trouble  should 
begin  at  the  factory,  in  the  construction  of  the  engine; 
if  not  there,  then  in  its  selection.  See  that  all  packed 
joints  are  held  with  studs  and  not  with  cap  screws ; 
and  that  the  studs  are  ample  in  size.  A  little  care- 
lessness and  an  ordinary  monkey  wrench  may  twist 
off  a  ^^-inch  stud  quite  easily,  although  that  is  a  size 
made  use  of  by  a  good  many  builders  of  small  en- 
gines. A  ^-inch  stud  is  quite  likely  to  take  care  of 
itself. 

52.  Material  to  Employ. — All  rubber  or  other 
packing  injured  by  heat  is  barred  from  use  around 
the  combustion  end  of  the  gasoline  engine  cylinder. 
Ordinary  asbestos  mill  board  is  as  good  as  anything 
if  applied  right,  and  is  much  cheaper  than  the  wire 
wove  and  other  special  brands.  One  sheet  of  i/32-in. 
mill  board  is  usually  enough  and  if  a  thicker  pack- 
ing is  needed,  two  sheets  of  this  thickness  are  better 
than  one  of  a  heavier  grade.  Copper-asbestos  pack- 
ings, in  which  a  piece  of  asbestos  board  is  sandwiched 
between  two  layers  of  copper  sheeting,  are  the  best. 

As  soon  as  the  head  is  removed  from  the  C3dinder 
the  old  packing  should  be  scraped  and  cleaned  off 
thoroughly  before  it  has  time  to  dry.  The  surface 
must  be  perfectly  smooth  and  level  if  a  tight  joint 
is  expected. 

Do  not  mark  out  the  new  packing  by  hammering 
the  sheet  material  lightly  against  the  face  of  the  cyl- 


70  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

inder  head.  A  few  such  treatments  are  almost  certain 
to  send  the  head  back  to  the  lathe  for  refacing.  By 
laying  the  sheet  upon  the  faced  side  of  the  head  and 
rubbing  along  all  edges  with  the  finger  a  sufficiently 
distinct  mark  will  be  made;  then  lay  sheet  upon  a 
clean  board  and  cut  out  with  a  sharp  knife.  Dip  the 
sheet  in  boiled  linseed  oil  but  do  not  allow  it  to  soak 
long  or  the  asbestos  fibres  will  have  a  tendency  to 
separate.  If  one  side  is  coated  with  a  good  quality 
of  flake  plumbago  it  will  detach  readily  from  head 
when  next  removed  and  will  be  fit  to  use  again.  In  case 
a  packing  is  specially  difficult  to  hold,  shellac  is  some- 
times added.  Allow  no  fragments  or  edges  of  pack- 
ing to  project  into  the  combustion  chamber  or  they 
may  heat  and  cause  pre-ignition  and  be  careful  that  no 
ragged  edges  project  into  water  ports  or  gas  openings. 

53.  Cleaning  Cylinder  Without  Removing  Head. — 
If  not  convenient  to  shut  down  for  a  complete  clean- 
ing of  the  cylinder  a  very  effective  temporary  method 
which  has  been  known  to  answer  for  some  time  is 
to  work  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  carbon  disulphide 
into  the  cylinder  through  the  lubricator.  This  acts 
quicker  without  oil  but  enough  of  the  latter  must  be 
included  to  keep  the  cylinder  from  cutting  while  the 
other  is  being  applied. 

By  pouring  alcohol  and  kerosene  in  equal  quantities 
into  the  top  of  the  cylinder  slowly  when  shutting  down 
at  night  the  carbon  may  also  be  loosened ;  then  do  not 
be  deceived  into  thinking  the  oil  bad  the  next  day  on 
account  of  the  dense  smoke  which  rolls  out  of  the 
muffler. 

Where  scraping  must  be  resorted  to  it  may  be  done 
through  any  small  opening  in  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
by  use  of  a  mirror  to  reflect  the  light,  or  by  intro- 
ducing a  small  incandescent  bulb.     The  scraping  can 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  71 

then  be  done  by  means  of  soft  steel  wires  the  ends  of 
which  have  been  fashioned  into  sharp  scrapers  or 
hoes  bent  at  different  angles.  Never  use  hard,  brittle 
material  for  this  purpose,  or  any  metal  that  might  frac- 
ture and  leave  fragments  in  the  cylinder. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
THE    PISTON    AND   AUXILIARY    PARTS. 

54.  The  Piston's  Several  Functions. — Upon  the 
smooth  fit  of  the  piston  and  its  rings  depend  the  four 
important  functions  of  drawing  in  the  fuel  vapor,  com- 
pressing the  charge,  receiving  the  impulse  and  convert- 
ting  it  into  mechanical  action,  and  scavenging  out  the 
cyHnder  in  advance  of  the  next  cycle.  More  care  is 
required  to  secure  a  perfect  fit  for  the  piston  in  the 
cylinder  and  the  rings  in  their  grooves  and  against 
the  cylinder  walls  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  en- 
gine, for,  without  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  at 
this  point,  the  full  power  of  the  most  carefully  con- 
structed engine  can  never  be  developed.  Use  will  fre- 
quently improve  a  set  of  poorly  fitting  rings  but  will 
seldom  if  ever  make  them  as  efficient  as  they  would 
have  been  if  properly   fitted  in  the  first  place. 

55.  Construction  of  Piston. — The  piston  may  be 
described  as  a  short  cylinder  closed  at  one  end  by  a 
flat  head,  open  at  the  other  and  attached  to  the  con- 
necting rod  at  the  center  by  a  pivot  or  piston-pin.  Be- 
tween the  head  and  the  piston-pin  a  number  of  grooves 
are  cut  around  the  outside  of  the  piston  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  rings.  These  vary  in  number  with  dif- 
ferent engine  builders,  three  or  four  being  usually 
considered  enough  for  small  and  medium  size  engines, 
with  possibly  one  between  the  piston-pin  and  the 
open  end  to  assist  in  the  lubrication  process. 

56.  The  Best   Material. — Pistons  should  be  made 

72 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  /^3 

from  a  close  grained  gray  cast  iron,  of  a  texture  sim- 
ilar to  that  used  in  the  cylinders  in  which  they  work; 
then  the  expansion  from  heat  will  be  more  nearly  alike 
in  each.  They  must  contain  no  sand  holes,  blow  holes 
or  other  serious  foundry  imperfections,  else  there  is 
likely  to  develop  a  troublesome  leak  which  may  be 
hard  to  locate. 


^Piston  ring  grooves  .^^up  joint  piston  rincs 

'^0000 

Fig.   15. — Piston  of  I.  H.  C.  Engine  and  Rings. 

57.  Design  and  Workmanship. — Gasoline  engine 
pistons  must  be  longer  than  the  pistons  of  steam  en- 
gines because  the  piston  rods  are  not  steadied  by 
guides  but  are  united  to  the  crank  shaft  through  a 
single  connecting  rod.  This,  without  the  greater 
length,  would  give  a  tendency  to  tilt  or  rock.  From 
one  to  one-and-a-half  times  the  diameter  is  the  length 
most  favored  in  the  United  States,  though  in  Europe 
much  longer  pistons  are  used,  and  more  rings.  Flat 
surface  piston  heads  are  generall}^  considered  best  be- 
cause they  cool  more  evenly  than  a  curved  surface. 
Deflecting  lips  and  all  projections  are  defects,  as  they 
are  apt  to  over-heat,  often  to  the  point  of  causing  pre- 
ignition.  Built-up  pistons  are  usually  objectionable, 
as  the  bolt  heads  retain  too  much  heat.  The  one-piece 
piston  is  best. 

58.  Piston  Rings;  Their  Purpose. — It  would  not 
be  possible  to  fit  a  solid  block  of  iron  so  closely  within 
the  walls  of  the  cylinder  that  no  gas  could  escape  be- 
tween them  and  at  the  same  time  keep  it  loose  enough 


74 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


to  work  easily  back  and  forth  at  high  speed  under  a 
great  variation  of  temperature.  This  is  not  attempted. 
Instead,  the  diameter  of  the  finished  piston  is  made 
slightly   less   than   the  bore   of  the   cylinder   and  the 


Fig.  i6. — Longitudinal  and  Cross  Section  of  Typical  Piston. 

escape  of  gases  past  it  is  prevented  by  introducing 
expansive  rings  into  grooves  cut  in  the  surface  of  the 
piston.  The  rings  should  fit  closely  but  smoothly  in 
their  grooves  and,  by  their  tendency  to  expand,  should 


iiiiiii:r^^iii-iiiiiiipaiiiiiiiiiiii»^  ii^-iiiimi^^ 

17  18 

Fig.    17. — Concentric  Ring   With   Diagonal    Cut  Joint. 

Fig.  18. — Eccentric  Ring  With  Stepped  or  Lapped  Joint. 

press  lightly  against  the  cylinder  walls  at  all  points. 
At  the  same  time  their  elasticity  reduces  the  friction 
to  the  minimum. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  75 

59.  Construction  of  Rings. — The  ideas  of  different 
engine  builders  vary  greatly  as  to  the  best  type  of 
ring  in  width,  thickness  and  style.  Some  favor  the 
concentric  (Fig.  17)  and  others  the  eccentric  type, 
shown  in  Fig.  18.  The  matter  of  joints,  too,  is  one 
of  disagreement,  the  diagonal  and  stepped  joint  each 
having  its  adherents.  Good  rings,  as  well  as  poor  ones, 
are-  made  after  all  of  these  ideas,  and  it  is  for  the 
engine  owner  to  concern  himself  with  results  only, 
letting  the  manufacturer  take  care  of  his  own  means 
of  obtaining  them. 

60.  The  Best  Material. — An  engine  ring  has  to  be 
sufficiently  elastic  to  admit  of  spreading  over  the  end 
of  the  piston  into  the  groove  without  breaking.  This 
requires  a  degree  of  toughness.  Once  in  its  place, 
however,  it  must  spring  back  to  its  original  form ; 
hence  it  must  be  hard  enough  to  retain  its  tensile 
strength.  The  happy  medium  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes is  rather  difficult  to  find,  because  iron  varies 
so  much  in  its  grading.  A  ring  that  is  tough  enough 
to  open  without  breaking  is  likely  to  be  too  soft  to 
return  to  its  original  shape.  One  having  spring 
enough  to  resume  its  circular  form  may  easily  break  in 
spreading. 

61.  Making  the  Ring. — The  best  rings  are  machine 
moulded  from  brass  or  iron  patterns.  They  are  then 
more  uniform.  These  castings  are  tube-shape  and  the 
rings  are  cut  in  a  lathe  from  this,  a  trifle  wider  than 
the  groove  they  are  to  fill.  They  are  then  faced  to 
a  standard  width  from  both  sides  and  a  small  piece 
cut  either  diagonally  across  the  metal  or  in  the  form 
of  a  stepped  joint.  It  is  probable  that  there  is  very 
little  difference  in  the  merits  of  the  two  when  prop- 
erly fitted.  In  the  case  of  eccentric  rings  the  cut  is 
made  in   the  thin  side. 


'j^  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

62.  Truing  the  Ring. — In  some  cheap  engines  the 
rings,  after  being  cut  or  spHt,  are  merely  forced  to- 
gether. Such  a  ring  is  not  a  true  circle  but  assumes 
a  slightly  oval  shape,  hardly  noticeable  to  the  eye.  It 
bears  against  the  cylinder  walls  at  two  points  only 
and  wears  them  oval,  while  the  rest  of  the  way  around 
there  is  a  leak  because  it  does  not  touch.  The  split 
ring  ought  to  be  clamped  together  in  a  lathe,  returned 
or  ground  to  a  true  circle,  and  then  finished  up  be- 
fore it  is  sprung  into  place  upon  the  piston.  It  will 
then  seat  itself  evenly  in  the  groove  and  give  a  uni- 
form outward  pressure  clear  around  against  the  cyl- 
inder walls.  Even  then,  if  there  are  hard  and  soft 
spots  in  the  metal,  there  w^ill  be  high  and  low  places 
in  the  ring,  due  to  uneven  tension,  so  it  is  specially 
necessary  that  metal  for  piston  rings  be  of  uniform 
texture.  Some  manufacturers  give  their  rings  a  spe- 
cially desirable  surface  by  a  light  lapping  with  pow- 
dered glass  or  grinding  with  a  hard  wheel.  The  abra- 
sive must  be  carefully  cleaned  ofif  after  the  lapping 
is  completed  or  it  will  adhere  to  the  surface  and  tend 
to  cut  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  to  some  extent. 

63.  Piston  and  Ring  Defects  and  Their  Remedy. — 
Two  special  remedies  may  be  relied  upon  to  prevent 
nearly  ever}^  defect  of  piston  and  rings ;  cleanliness  and 
lubrication.  Unlike  other  machine  bearings,  the  tem- 
perature is  so  high  that  ordinary  lubricating  oil,  if 
used  on  the  piston,  is  carbonized  before  its  mission 
is  accomplished,  while  every  flash  of  the  fuel  in  the 
presence  of  poor  oil  deposits  a  new  layer  of  carbon, 
gum  and  trouble-breeding  residue.  The  best  of  gaso- 
line engine  cylinder  oil  must  be  used  at  this  point  or 
there  is  sure  to  be  trouble.  All  modern  gasoline  en- 
gines have  some  provision  (see  Fig.  19)  for  feeding  the 
oil  in  a  small  but  continuous  supply  against  the  piston 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


17 


and  the  rings  and  then  spreading  it  over  the  cylinder 
walls.  Even  a  very  brief  failure  of  the  supply,  on 
account  of  a  clogged  oil  tube  or  empty  cup,  may  set 
the  piston  or  cylinder  to  cutting  and  render  reboring 
necessary ;  or  disaster  may  come  to  the  piston  rings  in- 
stead; as  the  oil  is  very  quickly  burned  up,  leaving 
the  surface  hot  and  dry  after  each  flash.  Since  the 
engine  may  continue  to  v^ork  for  some  time  without 
complaint  while  it  is  being  ruined,  this  point,  of  all 
others,  should  be  watched  most  closely. 


Fig.  19. — Piston  Pin  Oil  Feed. 

64.  The  Dirt  Menace. — Cleanliness  depends  a  great 
deal  upon  the  cjuality  of  the  lubricating  oil  used,  but, 
even  with  the  best  of  oil,  the  rings  will  become  so 
coated  in  time  with  sticky  or  baked  residue  that  they 
no  longer  close  or  expand  freely  in  the  groove ;  then 
compression  will  be  incomplete  and  much  of  the  power 
impulse  will  blow  past  the  rings  and  piston  into  the 
crank  case. 

65.  Cleaning  Piston  and  Rings. — At  least  twice  a 
year  the  piston  and  rings  should  be  inspected  and 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  scraping,  after  the  deposit  has 


78  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

been  softened  with  kerosene.  Gasoline,  though  some- 
times used,  is  too  powerful  a  dissolvent,  for  it  removes 
the  minute  particles  which  have  lodged  in  the  sur- 
face grain  of  the  metal  and  so  destroys  the  mirror  or 
glaze  finish  which  use  puts  on  the  rings  and  cylinder 
and  which  renders  an  absolutely  new  motor  less  sat- 
isfactory at  this  point  than  one  that  has  seen  mod- 
erate use.  This  high  glaze  surface,  once  acquired, 
should  neither  be  removed  by  chemicals  nor  severe 
scraping. 

66.  Removing  the  Rings. — It  is  a  mistake  for  a 
novice  to  remove  the  rings  from  the  cylinder  every 
time  the  piston  is  cleaned,  although  some  engine  text- 
books freely  advocate  that.  A  well  tempered  ring  is 
a  brittle  aftair  and  it  requires  more  springing  of  the 
metal  to  remove  one  than  to  replace  it;  hence  it  is 
very  liable  to  break  in  the  hands  of  the  inexperienced. 
Occasionally  though  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove 
them  in  order  to  correct  a  roughened  edge;  then  each 
ring  should  always  be  returned  to  its  own  groove. 
The  best  of  machine  parts  develop  some  individual 
characteristic  in  use  and  it  is  more  than  likely  that 
each  ring  will  fit  the  groove  in  which  it  has  been  run 
better  than  any  other. 

67.  Replacing  the  Rings. — Rings  are  not  difficult 
to  replace  if  three  or  four  thin,  narrow  metal  strips  are 
used  for  slides  and  expanders  until  the  ring  is  slipped 
directly  over  its  own  groove ;  then  the  strips  may  be 
pulled  out.  Rings  should  be  so  turned  that  joints  in 
two  successive  rings  do  not  come  opposite  each  other 
and,  if  either  edge  of  a  ring  presses  more  firmly  against 
the  cylinder  than  the  other,  let  it  be  the  one  turned 
toward  the  combustion  end. 

68.  The  Piston  Pin. — The  piston  or  gudgeon  pin 
should  be  made  of  hi^h  .o^rade  case  hardened  steel  and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


79 


must  be  heavy  enough  to  stand  the  jerking  thrust  of 
the  full  load  delivered  against  it  at  every  power  im- 
pulse. As  this  sometimes  reaches  a  maximum  pres- 
sure of  450  pounds  per  square  inch  of  piston  face  it 
is  evident  that  a  4-inch  cylinder,  with  a  piston  area 


Fig.  20. — Simple  Device  for  Removing  and  Replacing  Rings. 

of  over  12.5  inches,  might  deliver  sudden  strains  of 
about  three  tons  upon  the  piston-pin.  With  the  factor 
of  safety  figured  in,  the  tensile  strength  of  steel  is 
about  2,500  pounds  per  square  inch  of  projected  sur- 
face, and  the  piston-pin  of  a  four-inch  bore  engine, 
with  something  like  a  two-inch  bearing,  should  be  not 
far  from  one  inch  in  diameter,  which  is  about  the  size 
used  in  good  engine  practice.  Even  the  cheap  en- 
gines are  usually  provided  with  good  material  at  this 
point,  as  the  diiTerence  in  cost  of  so  small  a  part  would 
be  insignificant,  while  the  certainty  of  at  least  a  hole 
punched  through  the  piston  head  in  case  of  a  broken 


8o 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


pin  would  be  almost  absolute.  In  the  best  engines 
the  pin  is  ground  to  fit  the  piston  bosses  and  is  some- 
times forced  into  place  under  pressure. 

69.  The  Connecting  Rod. — All  of  the  power  de- 
veloped by  the  engine  is  delivered  through  the  con- 
necting rod  and  the  full  strength  of  the  engine  is 
consequently  needed  here.     In  the  heavy,  long-stroke 


Fig.  21. — ^larine  Type  of  Bushed  Connecting  Rod, 


engines  the  distance  between  bearings  is  relatively 
great  and  the  rod  must  be  heavier  in  proportion.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  short  rod  tends  to  cramp  the  piston 
in  the  cylinder  and  increases  the  friction  by  side- 
thrust.  Some  engine  builders  favor  drop  forged  steel ; 
others  use  malleable  iron,  semi-steel  or  bronze  I-beam 
type  castings.  There  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion,  too,  about  the  bearings,  especially  for  the 
piston-pin.  Some  still  prefer  the  two-piece  box,  ad- 
justable for  wear,  and  secured  by  a  bolt  at  each  side 
(see  Fig.  21)  ;  others  adjust  with  a  wedge,  held  in 
place  by  a  single  bolt,  which  also  holds  the  box.  A 
few  have  discarded  all  attempts  at  wear  adjustment 
at  the  piston  end  further  than  to  furnish  a  removable 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  8i 

bushing  which  can  be  replaced  when  w^orn  out ;  this 
to  avoid  the  danger  from  accident  caused  by  bolts 
and  wedges  working  loose.  All  makers  provide  ad- 
justable bearings  at  the  crank  shaft,  though  not  all 
use  the  same  material.  Phosphor  bronze  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  unwearable  and  the  drawback  of  cut- 
ting the  shaft  A'ery  rapidly  if  lubrication  is  neglected. 
Babbitt  is  too  soft  to  be  durable,  but  for  that  very 
reason  is  less  a  menace  to  the  shaft,  and  the  material 
is  cheaper  to  replace. 

70.  Crank  Shaft  and  Connecting  Rod  Lubrica- 
tion.— The  engine  designer  usualh^  provides  for  the 
oiling  of  the  piston-pin  from  the  same  cup  that  oils 
the  cylinder  and  piston,  so  the  operator  has  little  more 
to  do  with  this  than  to  keep  the  lubricator  filled.  The 
crank  shaft  may  be  oiled  by  means  of  any  ordi- 
nary lubricating  device ;  or  the  splash  system  may  be 
adopted  where  an  enclosed  crank  case  is  used.  Enough 
oil  is  poured  into  the  case  to  reach  the  revolving  shaft 
nicely  at  its  lowest  dip  and  is  thrown  or  splashed 
over  the  bearings.  This  is  a  very  sure  and  efficient 
system  so  long  as  the  oil  supply  is  kept  at  the  proper 
level  in  the  case  and  is  not  permitted  to  go  too  long- 
without  renewing.  The  system  requires  the  occasional 
but  not  the  frequent  attention  of  the  operator;  in 
fact,  there  is  no  system  of  oiling  yet  discovered  that 
will  do  its  work  unless  a  supply  of  oil  is  furnished  by 
the  watchful  operator.  The  method  that  has  to  be 
attended  to  once  or  twice  a  day  however  is  Jess  likely 
to  be  forgotten  than  one  that  is  self  regulating  for 
days  or  weeks. 

Sometimes  a  wire  ring  or  chain  is  suspended  loosely 
upon  the  shaft  and,  as  this  slowly  works  its  way 
around  under  the  constant  vibration,  it  carries  up 
with  it  a  quantitv  of  oil  continuallv  (see  Fig.  27).     In 


82  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

open  end  engines  without  a  crank  case  oil  cups  or 
some  similar  devices  have  to  be  used. 

71.  Repairs  and  Care. — Considering  the  excessive 
strain  placed  upon  its  parts  the  piston  and  correlated 
parts  seem  wonderfully  free  from  accident  or  from  the 
necessity  of  repairs  that  an  amateur  can  make.  Occa- 
sionally the  bearings  need  adjusting;  the  lubricating 
system  always  merits  watchfulness ;  then  an  occa- 
sional clean-up  when  the  carbon  deposits  begin  to 
gum  the  rings  is  about  all — cleanliness,  care  and  lubri- 
cation. Occasionally  a  ring  will  break  and  have  to 
be  replaced  with  a  new  one;  then  all  of  the  broken 
pieces  must  be  removed,  even  the  smallest;  otherwise 
they  are  liable  to  be  ground  into  an  abrading  powder 
and  will  score  or  cut  the  cylinder. 

Sometimes  a  ring  may  becomie  weak  in  its  outward 
pressure  and  cause  leakage  of  compression  and  power 
impulse.  While  this  soon  means  a  new  ring,  a  little 
longer  service  may  sometimes  be  secured  from  the 
old  one,  at  least  through  the  emergency  of  the  job 
in  hand,  by  inserting  a  piece  of  clock  spring  or  other 
light  steel  spring  in  the  groove  under  the  ring  or  by 
peening  the  ring.  Broken  connecting  rods  have  been 
welded  or  united  by  means  of  riveted  plates ;  but  this 
is  work  for  the  shop  and  not  for  the  novice ;  work,  too, 
that  should  be  done  with  the  fact  in  mind  that  a 
break  here  may  easily  wreck  the  engine  and  the  oper- 
ator also.  Piston-pins  may  be  driven  out  when 
broken,  and  new  ones  substituted.  Leaks  and  blow 
holes  have  been  closed  up  in  pistons  by  the  autoge- 
nous welding  process  or  tapped  out  and  closed  with 
plugs,  although  a  projecting  plug  or  bolt  is  always 
a  menace,  owing  to  its  tendency  to  over-heat  and  cause 
pre-ignition. 

Frequently  a  new  engine  will  not  run  as  smoothly 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  83 

as  one  that  has  seen  service ;  have  patience  till  the 
bearing  surfaces  become  smooth  and  reconciled  to 
each  other.  Do  not  load  a  new  engine  too  heavily 
while  the  bearings  and  reciprocating  surfaces  are  still 
rough,  or  a  seized  piston  may  be  the  result.  An  en- 
gine under  load  has  to  endure  a  higher  temperature 
than  when  running  empty  and  it  suffers  greater  ex- 
pansion of  its  exposed  metal  parts. 

72.  Other  Troubles. — Smoke  issuing  from  the  open 
end  of  the  cylinder  indicates  a  bad  leak  somewhere 
about  the  piston  and  may  mean  the  loss  of  fully  30% 
of  power. 

Black  oil  running  or  dripping  from  the  cylinder 
should  set  one  looking  for  a  broken  piston  ring. 

Poor  compression  or  shortage  of  power  may  mean 
only  a  stuck  ring,  caused  by  the  gummy  residue  of 
combustion  in  the  groove;  or  the  edge  of  a  ring  or 
a  groove  may  need  a  little  grinding  and  polishing  up 
with  rotten  stone  and  oil.  Sometimes  a  little  friction 
from  rough  ends  at  the  ring  joint  is  the  cause  of  the 
trouble.  High  or  low  spots  in  cylinder  piston  are  sure 
to  be  found  by  the  explosive  force  hurled  against 
them.  If  slight  and  in  the  piston  the  rings  may  over- 
come it.  If  in  the  cylinder  and  bad  the  cylinder  may 
have  to  be  rebored. 

Most  of  this  work  requires  special  tools  and  a  ma- 
chinist's training  and  is  not  repair  work  for  the  farm 
shop.  But  for  a  properly  designed  engine,  not  over- 
loaded and  well  cared  for,  such  troubles  come  so  sel- 
dom that  they  are  not  burdensome;  while  to  depend 
upon  untrained  and  inexperienced  hands  for  the  more 
serious  repairs  at  this  point  is  to  hazard  the  safety 
of  the  entire  engine. 

73.  Hints  and  Suggestions. — The  piston  is  not 
sensitive,  it  is  brutal,  and  when  it  goes  wrong  some- 


84  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

thing  serious  is  pretty  certain  to  happen."  A  scraping 
or  grating  noise  of  dry  metals  rubbing  together  at 
each  stroke  means  that  the  lubrication  has  failed. 
Don't  wait  to  find  out  why;  take  it  for  granted  there 
is  a  good  reason — and  shut  down.  If  it  is  seen  that  the 
piston  is  drawing  hard,  better  slow  down  as  much 
as  possible  but  still  keep  up  motion  until  things  can 
be  cooled  off  a  little  or  a  seized  piston  may  result.  Of 
course  the  load  must  all  be  turned  off  at  once  and  lubri- 
cation attempted,  though  the  walls  may  be  too  hot 
to  retain  it  in  the  usual  w^ay. 

Sometimes  a  leaky  piston  is  caused  by  the  rings 
getting  turned  so  that  the  joints  of  all  are  directly  in 
line.  Investigate  and,  in  that  case,  turn  them  around ; 
otherwise  be  careful  not  to  disturb  them.  Xot  only 
will  they  fit  best  in  the  particular  groove  they  have 
been  occupying;  they  may  refuse  to  work  as  well 
turned  in  any  other  way,  and  it  is  always  best,  where 
possible,  to  favor  the  whims  of  an  engine  that  is  work- 
ing all  right. 

Barring  accident,  there  is  little  to  get  wrong  with 
the  piston  itself  if  it  was  made  right  in  the  first  place. 
Nothing  about  it  wears ;  it  is  protected  from  that  by 
the  piston-pin,  the  connecting  rod  and  the  rings.  All 
of  these  may  have  to  be  replaced  occasionally. 


CHAPTER   V. 
THE    PORT    AND    VALVE    SYSTEM. 

74.  Subject  to  Rough  Treatment. — While  more 
engine  troubles  probably  come  from  the  ignition  sys- 
tem than  from  all  other  sources  combined,  there  is 
no  other  part  which  receives  as  much  rough  physical 
and  chemical  treatment  for  its  regular  heritage  as  the 
exhaust  port  and  valve  system ;  hence  it  is  of  special 
importance  for  the  engine  operator  to  understand  just 
what  the  valves  are  for  and  how  they  ought  to  work ; 
what  troubles  they  are  most  commonly  afflicted  with 
and  how  to  remove  them. 

75.  What  the  System  Contains. — In  a  general  way, 
all  engines  require  two  openings  or  ports  in  the  cyl- 
inder, an  intake  port  for  the  admission  of  the  fuel 
and  an  exhaust  port  for  the  expulsion  of  burned  gases. 
The  exact  method  of  accomplishing  these  two  proc- 
esses may  differ  a  little  in  different  engines,  some  en- 
gines using  two  exhaust  ports  instead  of  one ;  but 
they  all  have  the  same  results  to  accomplish  and  a 
variation  in  design  represents,  not  different  principles, 
but  a  difference  in  the  ideas  of  individuals  for  getting 
at  the  same  thing  most  effectively. 

76.  The  Intake  Port. — Through  the  intake  port, 
which  is  situated  in  or  near  the  closed  end  of  the  cyl- 
inder, a  pipe  leading  from  the  carburetor  discharges 
the  fuel  mixture  into  the  combustion  chamber,  and  it 
is  the  work  of  the  valve  at  this  point  to  open  freely 
for  the  admission  of  this   charge  and  then   close  ab- 

85 


86 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


solutely  against  any  back  leakage  under  the  pressure 
of  compression  or  combustion.  This  valve  must  work 
easily  when  opening,  must  close  promptly,  and  its  fit 
in  the  seat  must  be  perfect. 

77.     Size  of  the  Intake  Port. — The  size  or  capacity 
of  the  intake  svstem  fixes  in  some  measure  the  amount 


Fig.   22. — Cross    Section   of   Valve    Chamber. 


of  power  or  speed  variation  obtainable  from  an  en- 
gine through  varying  the  charge,  and  is  of  course 
fixed  by  the  designer  in  the  shop.  While  some  de- 
parture may  be  allowable  through  a  change  in  the 
frequency  of  the  charges,  the  valve  area  provided  by 
the  maker  of  the  engine  is  a  fixed  condition  designed 
for  a  certain  capacity,  and  is  usually  not  so  well 
adapted  to  any  other. 

Approximately,  the  size  of  the  intake  passage  in 
usual  engine  practice  is  about  as  follows : 

Diameter  of  passage  equals  that  of  piston  multi- 
plied by  .316; 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


87 


Area  of  passage  equals  area  of  piston  multiplied  by 

.1 ;  or, 
Intake   passage    area   should    equal    area   of   piston 
multiplied  by  the  speed  of  the  piston  in  feet  per 
minute ;  then  divided  by  6,000. 
While,  the  question  of  size  is  one  for  the  designer 
rather  than  the  operator,  it  is  referred  to  here  in  order 
to  emphasize  the  importance  of  keeping  dirt  and  ob- 
structions out  of  the  passage  and  of  keeping  the  valves 
opening  to  their  full  intended  capacity. 


Fig.  23. — Sectional  View  of  Combustion  Chamber,   Showing  Ar- 
rangement  of  Valves    In   Cylinder   Head. 


78.  Some  Common  Valve  Troubles. — The  three 
most  common  dangers  from  v^hich  the  intake  system 
suffers  are  dirt,  leaks  in  joints  or  pipe,  and  worn  or 
pitted  valve  faces.  A  very  small  obstruction,  though 
not  enough  to  close  the  passage  against  the  fuel,  may 
be  a  nucleus  for  the  accumulation  of  other  particles 
until  the  supply  of  vapor  is  reduced  and  the  charge 
not  sufficient ;  then  the  engine  loses  most  of  its  power 


88  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

even  though  it  may  continue  to  run.  A  much  smaller 
particle  of  dirt  carried  along  by  the  air  current  to  the 
valve  seat  may  hold  the  valve  up  a  trifle  from  the 
surface  against  which  it  should  rest;  there  is  then  a 
serious  loss  during  the  pressure  of  both  compression 
and  of  combustion  and  a  corresponding  decrease  of 
power.  A  bad  leak  of  this  kind  may  be  rather  difficult 
to  locate,  especially  in  a  multi-cylinder  engine,  al- 
though bad  leaks  are  rather  prone  to  announce  them- 
selves by  permitting  a  part  of  the  firing  flash  to 
follow  back  through  the  valve  and  intake  pipe  to  the 
carburetor.  The  result  to  the  engine  is  much  the  same 
that  it  would  be  to  a  gun  if  the  firing  chamber  was 
left  partly  open  and  a  part  of  the  charge  allowed  to 
escape  without  exerting  any  pressure  against  the  mis- 
sile. A  single  scale  from  a  rusty  pipe  may  in  this  way 
so  far  reduce  the  power  of  the  engine  as  to  render 
it  incapable  of  accomplishing  work  for  which  under 
favorable  conditions  it  would  have  ample  power. 

79.  Other  Common  Causes  of  Trouble. — Faulty 
valve-seating  may  result  from  a  weak  compression 
spring  or  from  the  stem  rubbing  too  heavily  against 
one  side  of  the  guide,  or  by  becoming  warped  from 
over-heat.  The  latter  condition  may  only  appear  after 
the  engine  has  become  heated  when  running;  or  it  may 
become  a  •permanent  defect.  In  the  former  case  it 
is  often  specially  difficult  to  locate. 

80.  The  Effect  of  Bad  Air. — The  danger  from  dust- 
laden  air  drawn  through  the  carburetor  into  the  in- 
take pipe  and  valve  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
This  is  specially  the  case  where  the  engine  is  set 
near  an  emery  wheel  or  wood-working  machinery,  such 
as  a  turning  lathe,  where  fine,  light  shavings  and  par- 
ticles of  wood  are  almost  certain  to  be  drawn  in  and 
deposited   around   the   valve.      Any   considerable    ob- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  89 

struction  is  likely  to  be  noticed  at  once  but  the  fine 
particles  carried  in  from  dust-laden  air  may  settle  and 
accumulate  about  the  valve  so  gradually  that  the  fail- 
ing power  of  the  engine  is  not  noticed  until  it  has 
become  all  but  useless. 

81.  Leak-Hunting. — It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  a 
multi-cylinder  engine  the  guilty  cylinder  may  work 
faultlessly  and  cause  one  of  its  neighbors  to  do  all  the 
missing.  A  small  leak  is  specially  hard  to  find  in  slow 
speed  engines.  Leaks  in  the  intake  system  are,  how- 
ever, much  more  serious  in  their  effect  than  wdien  in 
the  exhaust,  since  they  not  only  permit  the  escape 
of  pressure  but  may  so  adulterate  the  charge  with  an 
improperly  proportioned  mixture  as  to  destroy  in  a 
great  measure  the  efficiency  of  the  fuel  that  is  used. 
Mis-firing  often  results  from  this,  followed,  perhaps 
by  a  cannonlike  report  which  announces  the  accumula- 
tion of  two  or  more  charges  in  the  muffler,  where  it 
may  finally  ignite  all  at  once.  More  often  though 
the  unfired  charge  is  merely  expelled  through  the  ex- 
haust and  wasted. 

A  leak  should  be  strongly  suspected  if  there  is  a 
tendency  to  back-fire  or  if  the  mixture  is  so  weak  that 
it  ignites  slowly  and  is  still  afire  when  the  valve  next 
opens  to  receive  the  succeeding  charge.  Often  it  can 
be  located  by  holding  a  bit  of  flaming  paper  near 
the  valve  (having  first  removed  the  manifold),  while 
someone  hand-cranks  the  engine.  Even  a  slight  leak 
under  pressure  will  be  enough  to  flare  the  flame ;  or, 
if  the  engine  is  standing  too  near  some  stack  or  mow 
to  permit  of  this  method,  the  smoke  from  a  recently 
extinguished  stick  is  about  ecjually  sensitive  to  air 
currents.  Often  the  leak  can  be  located  by  covering 
the  pipe  with  soapy  water;  then  the  issuing  gas  will 
appear  in  the  form  of  minute  bubbles  or  "soap-suds." 


90  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

82.  Note  Fuel  Required  in  New  Engine. — Every 
engine  purchaser  should  note  carefully  the  amount  of 
fuel  consumed  by  his  purchase,  both  running  empty 
and  under  load,  then  make  a  record  of  the  same.  A 
decided  change  from  these  first  results  should  set  the 
operator  leak-hunting  and  examining  the  valves  and 
seats  for  carbon  deposits  or  pitted  faces.  A  little  care- 
lessness at  this  point  may  increase  the  running  ex- 
pense of  the  engine  a  fourth  or  more  besides  reduc- 
ing its  power  by  an  equal  amount. 

83.  The  Exhaust  Port. — The  exhaust  port  is  simi- 
ilar  to  the  man  behind  the  straw-carrier,  upon  whom 
all  the  soot  and  residue  of  the  entire  engine  pours, 
so  here  is  where  leaks  are  most  likely  to  occur.  Here, 
instead  of  an  occasional  particle  of  rust  or  dirt,  the 
valve  is  being  constantly  bombarded  with  all  sorts  of 
deposits  which,  owing  to  bad  fuel,  bad  lubrication, 
or  bad  management,  the  engine  has  occasion  to  re- 
ject. It  is  the  mission  of  the  exhaust  valve,  after  the 
charge  is  fired,  to  conduct  all  the  burned  gases  and 
heated  air  from  the  combustion  chamber  in  almost  as 
brief  an  interval  as  the  firing  of  the  charge  requires. 
More  or  less  of  this  refuse  is  sure  to  be  deposited  with 
all  that  it  touches  and,  in  the  presence  of  the  extreme 
heat,  is  liable  to  be  burned  on.  The  hot  gases,  too, 
set  up  chemical  actions  which  quickly  pit  the  surface 
of  the  valve  or  warp  it  so  that  it  does  not  seat  prop- 
erly. No  part  of  the  entire  engine  is  given  more  con- 
tinual abuse  than  the  exhaust  port  and  valve,  and,  in 
the  presence  of  a  mysterious  compression  leak,  no 
other  part  should  be  more  quickly  suspected. 

Usually  the  diameter  of  the  exhaust  port  equals  that 
of  the  piston  multiplied  by  thirty-five  hundredths,  and 
its  area  the  area  of  the  piston  multiplied  by  .12;  or, 
the  area  of  the  exhaust  passage  should  equal  that  of 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  91 

the  piston  multiplied  by  the  speed  and  divided  by  5,100, 
the  average  speed  of  the  exhaust  charge  in  feet  per 
minute. 

84.  Inspecting  the  System. — At  least  once  a  month, 
and  oftener  if  the  engine  shows  signs  of  low  compres- 
sion or  general  lethargy,  the  valves  should  be  thor- 
oughly inspected,  specially  with  reference  to  their  free 
action  when  opening  and  closing.  If  a  valve  seems 
sluggish,  look  to  the  compression  spring;  also  notice 
whether  the  stems  are  wearing  excessively  by  rubbing 
against  the  guides.  If  the  valves  or  their  seats  are 
dirty,  clean  with  kerosene  or  gasoline.  If  the  faces 
are  much  pitted,  regrind.  If  one  side  of  the  face  is 
bright  and  the  rest  coated,  see  whether  the  heat  has 
not  warped  it  out  of  true. 

85.  Valve  Timing. — Occasionally  the  valves  show 
none  of  these  defects  and  are  still  causing  the  trouble; 
they  may  be  working  out  of  time.  When  an  engine 
leaves  the  works  it  is  supposed  to  be  properly  set  and 
the  timing  should  not  be  interfered  with ;  but  after  it 
has  been  used  for  some  months  retiming  may  be  nec- 
essary ;  so  every  operator  ought  to  know  what  the 
timing  is  for,  and  how  it  is  accomplished. 

86.  The  Object  of  Valve  Timing. — As  the  piston 
starts  upon  its  suction  stroke  the  intake  valve  natur- 
ally opens  to  admit  vapor  into  the  vacuum  created, 
though  some  engines  secure  more  positive  and  quicker 
action  by  opening  the  valve  by  mechanical  means ; 
otherwise,  during  a  fraction  of  the  stroke  the  valve 
remains  closed  awaiting  sufficient  pressure  t(3'  open 
it.  During  the  suction  stroke  the  fuel  enters  the  com- 
bustion chamber  through  its  narrow  passage  at 
a  velocity  of  approximately  5,000  feet  per  min- 
ute and  if  the  intake  valve  is  held  open  a 
little    beyond    the     end    of    the    stroke    this    veloc-' 


92  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

ity  will  cause  fuel  to  continue  entering  for  an 
instant  after  the  compression  stroke  has  actually  com- 
menced. In  other  words,  for  an  instant  after  the  space 
is  filled,  the  velocit}^  will  cause  the  gas  to  "pile  up" 
if  given  a  chance.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  mechan- 
ically operated  valves  have  a  distinct  advantage  over 
those  worked  by  suction  and  compression  alone,  pro- 
viding the  cams  which  open  and  close  them  are  set 
properly. 

In  most  small  engines  the  intake  valve  is  opened  by 
suction  and  closed  by  compression,  which  is  hastened 
by  a  compression  spring;  then,  so  long  as  the  valves 
work  freely,  the  timing  is  automatic.  The  time  of 
opening  for  the  intake  valve  is  rather  less  important 
than  for  the  exhaust,  though  its  closing  time  afifects 
both  power  and  speed. 

Valve  timing  must  not  be  confused  with  ignition 
timing.  The  spark  must  work  in  harmony  with  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  valves  but  the  two  timing 
movements  are  distinctly  separate  and  should  each  be 
compared  with  the  movement  of  the  piston  rather  than 
with  each  other,  as  both  must  co-operate  with  that. 
A  great  deal  of  trouble  may  sometimes  be  avoided  if 
w^ell  defined  and  permanent  guide  marks  are  placed 
upon  the  fly  wheel  and  valve  gear  when  the  engine 
is  in  first-class  working  condition ;  in  fact,  many  en- 
gines are  now  marked  in  this  manner  before  being 
sent  from  the  factory. 

87.  Testing  and  Setting  the  Intake  Valve. — Re- 
volve -the  engine  fly  wheel  slowly  by  hand  in  the  di- 
rection it  should  run  tmtil  the  intake  valve  cam  barely 
begins  to  lift;  then  stop  engine  and  note  position  of 
piston,  which  should  have  reached  and  passed  by 
about  ten  degrees  its  extreme  inner,  or  (in  the  case 
of  vertical  engines)  upward,  stroke.     If  much  beyond 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  93 

this  position  the  valve  is  opening  too  late  for  insur- 
ing a  full  charge  of  fuel  and  the  power  of  the  engine 
is  reduced.  This  may  be  due  to  improper  setting  or 
to  a  bent  rod  or  to  wear  off  the  cam  operating  valve. 
To  determine  which,  again  revolve  the  engine,  always 
in  the  same  direction,  and  note  the  position  of  piston 
at  the  instant  the  cam  roller  releases  the  valve  and 
permits  it  to  close.  If  this  occur  before  the  crank 
has  traveled  180  degrees  from  the  point  of  opening  the 
difference  is  due  to  wear  or  a  bent  rod  as  a  rule ;  if 
the  opening  and  closing  points  are  180  degrees  apart 
the  cams  are  all  right  and  any  error  in  relation  to  the 
time  of  the  valve  closing  w^ill  be  accompanied  by  a 
similar  error  in  the  time  of  opening;  that  means  that 
the  setting  of  the  gear  wheels  is  wrong  and  should 
be  advanced  or  retarded,  as  the  opening  is  too  early 
or  too  late.  Both  the  opening  and  the  closing  of  the 
intake  valve  should  take  place  with  the  piston  5  to  10 
degrees  past  the  inner  and  outer  extreme  center  re- 
spectively, and  it  should  remain  open  during  a  full 
180  degrees  of  the  revolution. 

88.  The  Exhaust  Valve. — Turn  the  engine,  as  be- 
fore, by  hand.  The  exhaust  valve  should  open  when 
the  piston  has  covered  about  four-fifths  of  its  outward 
and  downward  stroke  and  should  remain  open  until 
within  three  degrees  of  crank  travel  from  the  point 
where  the  inlet  valve  begins  to  open,  that  is,  barely 
past  the  extreme  center  of  the  return  stroke. 

89.  The  General  Rule. — This  allows  us  to  formu- 
late the  time  of  opening  and  closing  the  tw^o  valves 
somewhat  as  follows :  the  intake  valve  should  both 
open  and  close  from  five  to  ten  degrees  late,  that  is, 
beyond  the  exact  stroke  center.  The  exhaust  valve 
should  open  early  and  close  late  in  relation  to  the  dead 
centers,  its  departure  from  the  center  being  greater  in 


94  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

relation  to  its  opening  and  less  with  regard  to  its  clos- 
ing time.  Some  engine  makers  so  time  the  valves  that 
the  exhaust  closes  and  the  intake  opens  at  exactly  the 
same  time,  while  in  some  of  the  high  speed  racing  en- 
gines used  in  automobiles  both  valves  are  actually 
open  for  an  instant  at  the  same  time,  but  this,  wdiile  it 
may  add  a  little  to  the  efficiency  of  a  high  speed  en- 
gine, is  a  distinct  sacrifice  of  fuel  to  speed. 

One  other  fault  may  affect  the  time  when  a  valve 
operates.  Betw^een  the  top  of  the  stem  and  the  bar 
wdiich  depresses  it  there  should  be  a  slight  clearance 
of  1-64  to  1-32  of  an  inch  to  allow  for  expansion  of 
metal ;  otherwise  wdien  hot  the  stem  may  be  in  con- 
stant contact  with  bar  and  so  kept  from  closing  fully. 
This  space,  however,  may  in  time  be  increased  by 
wear  and  so  compel  the  bar  to  move  farther  down- 
ward before  the  valve  begins  to  open  and  be  unable, 
in  its  limited  movement,  to  open  the  passage  wdde. 
This  W'Ould  of  course  afitect  the  work  done  by  the 
valves  and  might  reduce  the  power  of  the  engine 
either  by  curtailing  the  inflow  of  fuel  or  by  prevent- 
ing the  burned  gases  from  being  properly  discharged. 
The  amount  of  this  clearance  space  should  be  noted 
occasionally  both  when  the  engine  is  cold  and  when 
it  is  at  operating  heat. 

90.  Valve  Grinding;  When  and  How. — Valves 
ought  to  be  reground  at  least  once  each  season,  as 
the  chemical  action  of  the  gases  and  the  heat  will  cer- 
tainly pit  them  more  or  less.  Burned  valves  have 
sometimes  to  be  gromid  much  oftener,  but  it  is  well 
to  remember  that,  like  saw  filing,  the  grinding  of  a 
valve  removes  a  part  of  the  metal,  drops  it  deeper  into 
its  seat  and  advances  the  time  when  a  new  valve  wall 
be  necessary,  so  they  should  not  be  ground  any  oftener 
than  needed.   The  inlet  valves  do  not  as  a  rule  need  to 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


95 


be  reground  as  often  as  the  exhaust  valves,  since  they 
do  not  pit  as  quickly  and  are  not  so  much  inclined  to 
warp  with  the  heat.    Valves  should  be  examined  once 


Fig.   24. — Typical    Alechanical    Vah^e   Gear. 

a  month  for  pitting  and  the  carbon  should  be  removed 
from  them  with  kerosene. 

Fine  emery  dust  and  the  finest  grades  of  powdered 
glass  made  into  a  paste  with  lubricating  oil  are  gen- 
erally used,  though  many  engine  men  object  to  even 
the  finest  emery  as,  once  embedded  in  the  metal,  it 
tends  to  remain  and  continue  the  erosive  action  in  the 
engine.  At  least,  cheap  emery  should  not  be  used,  as 
the  size  of  the  grains  varies  so  greatly.  Care  must 
also  be  taken  that  no  emery  is  allowed  to  get  into  the 
cylinder.  Emery  cuts  the  fastest,  while  powdered 
glass,  which  looks  like  the  finest  flour,  gives  the  most 
perfect  finish. 

To  grind,  remove  spring  from  stem  and  cap  from 
valve    chamber.      Apply    semi-fluid    paste    of    oil    and 


96  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

emery  or  glass  on  valve  seat ;  then  revolve  valve  with 
screw  driver  or  by  twirling  stem  between  the  hands. 
Do  not  use  much  pressure,  but  lift  valve  frequently 
to  remove  dirt  balls.  When  it  turns  without  much 
friction  examine  seat  frequently  and  discontinue  when 
there  is  a  bright  ring  clear  around,  indicating  that  the 
surface  is  touching  evenly  its  entire  circumference. 
When  finished  give  the  final  touch  with  tripoli  and 
water.  This  insures  a  smooth  face  which  Avill  wear 
well.  Wash  in  gasoline  and  wipe  dr}' ;  then  carefully 
remove  all  grit  from  the  cage.  Some  valve  seats  are 
a  part  of  the  cylinder  head  but  the  better  class  are  in 
a  block,  called  a  cage,  which  is  removable  like  a  spark 
plug.  Test  these  after  grinding  by  inverting  cage  after 
valve  and  spring  are  replaced,  and  filling  with  gaso- 
line. If  there  is  not  even  a  sweating  of  gasoline  be- 
tween the  valve  and  its  seat  when  the  valve  is  re- 
volved the  grinding  job  is  perfect.  Hand  grinding, 
though  slower,  is  the  best  method,  though  some  use 
drill  press  or  lathe.  Wlien  hand  grinding,  motion 
should  frequently  be  reversed.  In  drill  press  use  slow 
speed  and  not  much  pressure,  to  avoid  heating;  also, 
release  every  few  seconds.  The  job  should  not  be  re- 
garded as  complete  until  it  will  pass  the  above  test 
with  gasoline  or  at  least  will  show  a  bright  ring  clear 
around  both  valve  and  the  seat. 

When  valves  are  out  notice  whether  the  spindle  has 
been  worn  smooth  by  rubbing  hard  against  the  guide. 
Polish  the  spindle  w^ith  emery  cloth. 

Where  emery  is  used  in  grinding,  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  powdered  emery  in  one  pound  of  vaseline  make  a 
good  mixture,  but  be  exact  with  the  measurement  and 
clean 'the  metal  thoroughly  after  grinding. 

91.  The  MufHer;  Its  Use  and  Abuse. — Few  human 
made  machines  are  so  perfect  that  they  do  not  include 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


97 


some  necessary  evil.  The  muffler  is  the  gasoline  en- 
gine's Jonah,  yet  without  it  the  entire  neighborhood 
would  soon  vote  the  constant  fusillade  of  cannon-like 
cracks  a  public  nuisance. 

A  muffler  of  correct  design  and  sufficient  size  to 
avoid  back  pressure  may  be  made  only  a  relative  evil, 
although  it  is  likely  that  the  best  of  them  destroy 
some  power.  By  actual  experiment  a  36  H.  P.  engine 
running  at  1,500  revolutions  per  minute,  exhausting 
into  the  open  air,  became  a  little  over  33  H.  P.  with 
exhaust  pipes,  and  lost  nearly  30  per  cent,  of  power 
Vv^ith  both  pipes  and  muffler. 

Mufflers  of  greatest  length  and  least  diameter  are 
most  effective  silencers — and  power  destroyers. 
They  should  not  be  too  small  or  hampered  by  long 
exhaust  pipes  with  many  turns.  The  straightest  course 


Fig.    25.— Sectional    Views    of    Conventional    Mufflers. 


possible  and  with  the  least  obstruction  should  be  the 
rule  with  all  exhausts,  whether  using  a  muffler  or  an 
exhaust  or  an  exhaust  pipe  high  in  air.  Some  high, 
narrow  pipes  have  actually  been  known  to  shut  the 
engine  down  so  that  it  would  not  run  at  all. 

Dirty  and  obstructed  mufflers  must  not  be  tolerated 
if  the  greatest  power  is  desired.  When  the  sound  is- 
suing from  it  resembles  that  of  a  continuous  stream  of 
compressed  air  the  muffler  is  clogged  with  dirt  or  else 
some  of  the  plates  have  been  displaced.    Remove  muf- 


98  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

fler  and  note  result  on  engine.     If  it  runs  much  better, 
clean  and  overhaul  the  muffler  before  returning. 

92.  A  Word  of  Caution. — Never  allow  a  gasoline 
engine  to  exhaust  inside  a  stable  or  any  other  closed 
building  where  there  is  animal  life.  The  burned  out 
gases  are  in  many  cases  active  poison  and  live  stock 
or  human  beings  may  be  killed  outright  by  the  poison- 
ous fumes.  For  this  reason  it  is  well  to  carry  the 
exhaust  well  up  in  the  air,  but  not  through  small  pipe 
or  one  with  many  turns. 

93.  Valve  Vagaries. — If  the  inlet  and  exhaust 
valves  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  cylinder  head  the 
spark  plug  points  will  remain  much  cleaner. 

When  the  exhaust  valves  open  too  late  the  engine 
lacks  speed ;  if  they  close  too  early  it  loses  power, 
the  plugs  foul,  the  gasoline  consumption  is  too  high, 
the  engine  heats  and  does  not  throttle  down. 

Nickel  steel  exhaust  valves  resist  heat  much  better 
than  those  of  common  steel,  but  do  not  wear  so  well. 
Latest  automobile  practice  uses  a  nickel  steel  head 
electrically  welded  to  a  carbon  steel  stem. 

Black  smoke  issuing  from  the  exhaust  indicates 
too  much  gasoline,  and  all  the  extravagance  in  fuel 
and  dirt  which  goes  with  it. 

Blue  smoke  mxans  too  much  oil.  Though  less  in- 
jurious, it  should  be  corrected. 

AVhite  smoke  also  means  too  much  oil — and  laziness 
in  adjustment;  or,  it  may  mean  water  in  the  gasoline 
— that  is,  steam. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    CARBURETOR. 

94. — The  Heart  of  the  Engine. — Some  one  has  called 
the  carburetor  a  box  full  of  mysteries  with  nothing  in 
it.  This  is  hardly  true,  but  it  may  well  surprise  any- 
one who  is  familiar  with  the  important  function  it 
performs  to  see  for  the  first  time  the  interior  of  this 
complicated  looking  contrivance.  Instead  of  the  hand- 
ful of  delicate  wheels  one  almost  looks  for,  the  interior 
is  about  as  simple  and  plain  as  the  outside.  However, 
more  hidden  mysteries  and  surprises  await  one  in  this 
little  bundle  of  rigid  pipes  and  outlets  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  engine  excepting  the  ignition  sys- 
tem. Here,  too,  lies  the  most  vital  difference  between 
the  gas,  gasoline,  and  kerosene  engine,  where  a 
little  change  may  convert  the  one  into  the  other. 
Here,  too,  without  the  proper  special  adjustment,  a 
change  of  fuel  may  speedily  convert  an  engine  of  one 
kind  into  none  at  all. 

95.  Carburetors  to  Be  Let  Alone. — Carburetors  as 
a  rule  are  adjusted  before  being  sent  out,  so  there  is 
no  excuse  for  meddling  with  them  unless  they  meet 
with  an  accident  or  there  is  to  be  some  radical  change 
of  fuel.  To  understand  how  they  are  constructed  and 
just  how  they  work  when  in  good  working  order  is 
essential.  To  know  when  to  let  them  alone  is  at  least 
equally  important ;  often  it  is  more  so. 

96.  The  Real  Engine  Fuel. — Neither  a  gasoline, 
kerosene,   nor  a  gas   engine   can  be   run   on   the  fuel 

99 


100 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


alone.  All  require  air  as  a  part  of  the  combustible 
mixture,  and  it  must  be  supplied  in  much  the  largest 
quantity   of  the   two.     Air   alone  would  be   quite   as 


Fig.  26. — Exterior  View  of  One  Model  Kingston  Carburetor. 

effective  a  fuel  as  gasoline  alone,  and  gasoline  cannot 
be  used  at  all  until  it  is  converted  into  an  air-like  gas. 
It  is  the  mission  of  the  carburetor  to  so  convert  it 


Fig.  27. — Sectional  View  of  Kingston  Carburetor. 

and  to  mix  it  with  the  amount  of  air  required  for  the 
best  combustion ;  then  to  deliver  the  completed  mix- 
ture to  the  intake  pipe  and  from  thence  to  the  com- 
bustion chamber. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  lor 

97.  Why  an  Unvarying  Adjustment  Is  Not  Possible. 

— Theoretically,  it  would  seem  that  the  exact  propor- 
tion of  air  and  vapor  which  gives  the  greatest  power 
could  be  determined  by  experiment,  and  then  a  car- 
buretor made  that  would  deliver  this  proportion  al- 
ways and  no  other.  Mechanical  mixtures,  however, 
are  never  so  constant  in  their  proportion  as  are  chem- 
ical combinations,  and  all  petroleum  vapors  are  in 
some  measure  mechanical  blendings.  Water  vapor, 
carbonic  acid  gas,  nitrogen  and  other  more  or  less 
incombustible  vapors  are  always  present,  but  by  no 
means  always  in  the  same  proportion.  Some  of  the 
burned  gases  from  the  previous  explosion,  too,  re- 
main in  the  C3dinder,  and  the  mixture  delivered  to  the 
spark  is  sometimes  very  dififerent  chemically  from 
that  passed  over  by  the  carburetor,  while  the  exact 
conditions  under  which  it  is  fired  may  not  be  the 
same  in  any  two  consecutive  charges. 

98.  How  Fuel  and  Its  Requirements  Vary. — If 
there  was  not  some  range  in  the  proportion  of  air 
and  gasoline  vapor  that  can  be  ignited  the  gasoline 
engine  would  hardly  be  possible.  Air  mixed  with  1.25 
per  cent,  of  gasoline  will  barely  ignite  at  atmospheric 
pressure ;  then  the  vigor  of  the  combustion  increases 
steadily  until  about  2.5  per  cent,  of  gasoline  is  intro- 
duced, when  it  diminishes  again  until  at  about  5.5 
per  cent,  it  again  becomes  non-inflammable.  Greater 
heat  permits  the  use  of  a  somewhat  weaker  mixture, 
and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  fuel  which  is  right 
for  starting  the  engine  up  when  cold  becomes  too 
rich  after  the  metal  has  become  heated.  High  com- 
pression also  makes  the  use  of  a  weaker  mixture  pos- 
sible, so  that  a  part  of  the  energy  lost  in  the  extra 
compression  is  made  up  in  the  increased  economy  in 
amount  of  fuel.    The  mixture  which  is  correct  at  nor- 


102 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


mal   speed   is,  on  the  other  hand,  too  weak  for  low 
speed. 

99.     How  the   Carburetor  Vaporizes   the   Gasoline. 

— AMien  the  piston  starts  upon  its  inhaling  stroke  it 
leaves  a  partial  vacuum  behind  it,  and  the  intake  valve, 


Fig.    28. — How    the    Carburetor    Vaporizes.      Sectional    View    of 
Breeze  Device   Shows  Important  Parts. 


responding  to  the  suction,  admits  a  current  from  the 
pipe  back  to  the  carburetor,  where  an  opening  admits 
a  supply  of  outside  air.  This  action  serves  two  pur- 
poses. Not  only  does  a  current  of  air  begin  to  rush 
into  the  cylinder  and  fill  the  vacuum,  but  in  passing 
across  the  surface  of  a  shallow  pool  of  gasoline  in  the 
carburetor,  it  turns  a  portion  of  this  into  vapor  and 
carries  it  along  as  we  have  seen  a  current  of  heated 
air    evaporate   a    saticer   of   gasoline    in    the    sunlight 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  103 

when  the  wind  is  blowing  across  it.  It  is  this  prop- 
erty of  ready  evaporation  that  makes  gasoline  spe- 
cially adaptable  to  use  as  an  engine  fuel. 

100.  Mixing  Air  and  Gasoline  Vapor. — Some  en- 
gines accomplish  the  mixture  by  the  mere  act  of  draw- 
ing the  air  current  across  the  surface  of  gasoline,  while 
others  depend  upon  spraying  the  liquid  through  a  fine 
nozzle  into  the  midst  of  the  current  and  so  present 
in  the  form  of  mist  a  relatively  large  surface  area  of 
gasoline  to  be  acted  upon.  With  the  known  area  for 
the  admission  of  air  the  flow  of  gasoline  may  be  so 
regulated  that  the  resulting  mixture  will  approximate 
that  point  at  which  the  combustion  possesses  the  most 
energy.  A  float  valve  made  of  cork  or  light  metal 
cylinder  or  can,  hollow  and  air-tight,  regulates  the 
flow  of  the  liquid  into  the  float  or  receiving  chamber 
by  connection  with  the  inlet  valve,  which  in  turn  cuts 
off  or  admits  more  gasoline  as  the  supply  rises  above 
or  falls  belovv^  a  certain  level. 

loi.  Automatic  Carburetors. — Automatic  carbu- 
retors are  intended  to  partially  close  at  low  engine 
speed  and  gradually  open  as  the  speed  increases. 
They  are  specially  essential  when  the  load  thrown  on 
the  engine  is  likely  to  vary  considerably,  as  it  does  in 
much  farm  work — such  as  hay  pressing.  Formerly 
it  was  thought  that  the  best  carburetor  was  the  one 
which  did  its  work  with  the  least  possible  variation, 
but  it  is  known  that  where  the  load  varies  the  supply 
of  fuel  should  fit  the  work  it  is  intended  to  do. 

102.  Bad  Air. — It  is  easy  to  see  the  importance  of 
keeping  dirt  out  of  the  pipes  and  valves  by  keeping 
the  gasoline  free  from  dirt  particles.  That  the  air 
supply  needs  to  be  equally  well  guarded  does  not 
appeal  to  some.  If  the  engine  gets  its  air  supply  from 
a   dusty   barn   or  workshop    and   there   is   no   trouble 


104         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         105 

some  place  along  the  intake  pipe,  we  may  be  sure 
that  sooner  or  later  the  gradual  accumulation  will  be 
heard  from  in  the  valve  seats.  The  air  that  an  engine 
breathes  should  be  as  free  from  dust  as  the  gasoline 
is  from  dirt ;  and,  in  cold  weather,  there  will  be  a 
saving  of  energy  if  the  air  be  warmed  somewhat 
before  it  reaches  the  cylinder.  This  is  imperative  in 
the  case  of  kerosene  engines,  as  kerosene  requires  a 
higher  temperature  for  vaporizing  than  does  gasoline, 
kerosene  engines,  for  that  reason,  are  generally  started 
on  gasoline  until  the  metal  has  time  to  warm  up ;  or 
the  carburetor  may  be  warmed  by  direct  heat,  and  the 
trouble  of  using  the  two  fuels  avoided. 

103.  Carburetor  Troubles  and  How  to  Cure  Them. 
— Nearly  all  carburetor  troubles  come  from  one  of 
two  avoidable  faults ;  incorrect  mixtures,  and  dirt. 
Temperature  troubles  may  arise,  but  are  so  well  under- 
stood that  there  is  little  mystery  about  them.  Al- 
ways, when  dealing  with  gases  in  pipes  open  to  the 
outside  air,  atmospheric  pressure  will  keep  a  full 
supply  of  something  constantly  coming  over.  If  one 
of  the  gasoline  pipes  happens  to  get  half  clogged  with 
dirt,  the  place  of  the  gasoline  vapor  is  taken  by  a 
greater  proportion  of  air,  and  the  same  amount  of 
mixture  seems  to  be  coming  into  the  cylinder.  The 
fuel  will  be  too  poor  or  weak,  though ;  the  explosions 
will  lack  force,  or  possibly  miss  fire  entirely  until  an 
accumulation  of  the  unexploded  charges  may  lodge  in 
the  muffler  and  make  a  startling  report  to  the  man 
outside. 

104.  Barking. — This  is  called  barking  or  after  fir- 
ing, and  should  not  be  confused,  though  it  often  is, 
with  back  firing.  Barking  may  be  due  to  either  too 
rich  or  too  weak  a  fuel.  It  always  indicates  mis- 
firing or  incomplete  combustion.     The  remedy  is  ob- 


io6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

vioiis  ;  find  out  what  is  wrong  with  the  mixture  and 
correct  it. 

105.  Misfiring. — Misfiring  may  be  the  result  of  any- 
thing which  renders  ignition  difficult;  either  too  weak 
or  too  rich  a  mixture  often  causing  it.  It  is  also 
caused  by  various  ignition  vagaries.  If  the  mixture  is 
too  rich,  more  or  less  black  smoke  will  be  seen  to  roll 
out  of  the  muffler.  If  this  is  not  present,  gradually 
increase  the  gasoline  supply  until  the  misfiring  dis- 
appears, or  else  the  black  smoke  becomes  visible.  If 
the  latter  occurs  first  the  misfire  is  not  due  to  carbu- 
retor trouble.  Sometimes  a  leaky  intake  pipe  causes 
misfiring  by  the  admission  of  air  which  dilutes  the 
correctly  proportioned  mixture  delivered  by  the  car- 
buretor. 

106.  Back-firing. — This  rather  startling  accident  is 
as  a  rule  more  exciting  than  dangerous,  and  is  often 
caused  by  too  weak  a  mixture  which  does  not  ignite 
readily  and  burns  so  slowly  that  the  cylinder  holds 
the  fire  until  the  valve  opens  to  admit  the  next  charge ; 
the  combustion  flashes  back  along  the  incoming 
charge  toward  the  carburetor.  Like  all  other  mixture 
faults,  the  remedy  is  to  correct  the  defect. 

107.  Flooding. — When  for  any  reason  the  float 
ceases  to  shut  off  the  supply  of  gasoline  at  the  right 
time,  flooding  is  sure  to  result.  The  failure  may  be 
due  to  the  imperfect  seating  of  the  float  valve,  either 
on  account  of  a  grain  of  dirt  or  an  imperfect  fit.  If 
the  latter,  a  light  grinding  of  the  valve  in  its  seat 
with  or  even  without  abrasive  paste  will  probably 
overcome  the  difficulty.  If  dirt  is  lodged  under  the 
float,  depressing  it  repeatedly  may  wash  out  the  ob- 
struction. Occasionally  the  coating  of  a  cork  valve 
breaks  down  and  permits  the  float  to  become  soaked 
until  inclined  to  sink  too  low  in  the  liquid.     In  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  joy 

case  of  metal  floats  a  leak  may  bring  the  same  result ; 
then  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  rise  too  high  in  the  cham- 
ber. All  of  these  causes,  of  course,  suggest  their  own 
treatment.  The  presence  of  liquid  inside  a  metal 
float  is  evidence  of  a  leak,  and  the  leak  may  generally 
be  located  by  heating  the  float  and  then  applying  a 
match  to  the  side  until  the  issuing  jet  of  gas  is  found. 

io8.  Priming  the  Carburetor. — The  occasional  ne- 
cessity of  this  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  supply 
of  gasoline  has  to  be  higher  in  the  float  chamber  in 
starting  an  engine  than  after  it  is  warmed  up  by 
running.  In  the  top  of  most  float  chambers  is  a  pin 
by  means  of  which  the  float  may  be  depressed  and  an 
excess  of  gasoline  alloAved  to  enter.  This  is  called 
priming  the  engine  or  "tickling  the  carburetor,"  a 
process  generally  overdone.  A  slight  depression  is 
enough  to  start  the  flow,  while  a  continuance  soon 
floods  the  chamber  and  renders  a  mixture  so  rich  that 
frequently  the  engine  refuses  to  start.  A  steady  de- 
pression, too,  is  quite  as  effective  as  a  s-eries  of  hard, 
sudden  jabs,  such  as  many  people  use,  and  is  far  less 
likely  to  do  an  injury. 

log.  Size  of  the  Carburetor. — As  a  rule  the  en- 
gine purchased  for  the  farm  is  already  supplied  with 
a  carburetor ;  still  it  is  not  always  fitted  with  one ; 
for  a  carburetor,  like  any  other  vital  part,  may  easily 
be  too  small ;  wdiile,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  too 
large. 

If  too  small,  it  cannot  deliver  in  sufficient  quantity 
the  mixture  of  fuel  vapors  which  mean  the  power  of 
the  engine.  If  too  large,  so  that  a  greater  quantity 
is  presented  to  the  intake  valve  than  it  is  capable  of 
admitting,  the  speed  of,  the  current  is  so  far  reduced 
that  the  process  of  evaporation  may  be  seriously  in- 
terfered with  and  a  poorly   proportioned  mixture   be 


io8         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  result.  In  another  chapter  is  given  the  formula 
for  finding  the  effective  valve  area,  and  the  carburetor 
with  an  outlet  diameter  slighth^  larger  than  the  valve 
area  will  be  the  best  size,  a  little  excess  being  allowed 
to  overcome  friction  of  the  fuel  in  passing  through 
carburetor  and  pipe. 

no.  Adjusting  the  Carburetor. — With  so  many 
dift'erent  carburetors  on  the  market  it  is  difficult  to 
lay  down  rules  for  adjustment  that  would  apply  to 
all,  or  even  in  all  cases  to  any  one.  The  air  valves  of 
automatic  types  are  intended  to  close  at  lowest  en- 
gine speed  and  to  open  by  degrees  until  the  maximum 
opening  is  reached  at  the  highest  speed.  The  maxi- 
mum lift,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  size  and  speed 
of  the  engine.  There  is  usually  a  stop,  which  is  ad- 
justable, to  prevent  fluttering  and  to  control  the  maxi- 
mumi  opening  of  the  valve.  This  should  be  carefully 
adjusted.  Usually  a  needle  valve  of  some  sort  regu- 
lates the  liquid  entering  the  spraying  nozzle.  This 
should  be  adjusted  until  the  engine  runs  best  at  its 
lowest  speed  with  throttle  as  nearly  shut  as  possible. 
The  throttle  should  then  be  gradually  opened  and  the 
tension  of  auxiliary  air  valve  increased  or  diminished 
slowly  until  the  best  average  running  condition  is 
found;  then  at  high  speed  a  slight  readjustment  of 
the  needle  valve  may  be  some  improvement.  If  maxi- 
mum speed  is  desired,  a  little  wider  opening  of  both 
needle  valve  and  auxiliary  air  valve  should  be  given 
than  for  ordinary  running;  but  this  is  a  sacrifice  to 
economy  of  fuel  and  the  engine  will  be  harder  to 
start.  The  auxiliary  air  valve  screw  should  be  used 
only  to  hold  valve  on  seat  with  enough  pressure 
to  keep  it  there  under  lowest  throttle.  The  valve 
movements  should  be  controlled  by  size  of  the 
spring,  either  through  a  change  in  the  size  or  number 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  109 

of  coils,  and  not  by  tightening  or  loosening  the  screw. 

111.  Adjusting  the  Float  Valve. — With  the  float 
valve  chamber  filled  to  the  point  where  shut  off  by  the 
float,  notice  whether  there  is  a  continuous  dripping 
from  the  spray  nozzle  and,  if  there  is,  press  the  valve 
shut  and  see  if  the  dripping  continues.  If  it  does  the 
valve  does  not  shut  properly ;  if  not,  the  liquid  is  too 
high  in  the  chamber  and  the  float  valve  should  be  ad- 
justed to  shut  it  off  sooner. 

Carburetor  adjustment  is  a  delicate  thing  which 
needs  both  care  and  some  little  skill.  It  should  not 
be  attempted  by  the  novice  unless  absolutely  neces- 
sary. When  it  must  be  done,  attempt  but  one  adjust- 
ment at  a  time  and,  when  the  points  are  finally  found 
in  all  the  adjustments  where  the  engine  runs  the  best, 
in  some  way  mark  the  places  so  as  to  save  complete 
re-adjustment  if  the  carburetor  should  ever  be  dis- 
arranged. A  small,  simple  mark  may  be  the  means 
of  avoiding  a  very  difficult  task. 

112.  Miscellaneous  Hints. — Most  leaks  in  the  gaso- 
line system  occur  near  the  carburetor  and  are  caused 
by  the  continuous  vibration  of  the  engine  while  run- 
ning. They  seldom  develop  near  the  tank  except  in 
case  of  a  direct  injury  or  accident. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  point  in  the  overflow  pipe 
lower  than  the  tank  wherein  the  gasoline  will  be 
trapped.  The  overflow  pipe  should  have  a  distinct 
pitch  toward  the  tank. 

The  flow  of  the  gasoline  through  the  pipes  is  so 
slow  that  all  dust  has  a  chance  to  settle  to  the  bottom 
rather  than  be  carried  along.  This  renders  straining 
all  the  more  necessary. 

Occasionally  set  drip  pan  under  carburetor,  if  for 
no  other  purpose  than  to  see  for  certain  it  is  not 
leaking. 


no         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

Always  have  a  good  stopcock  on  the  line  somewhere 
between  tank  and  carburetor.  Do  not  depend  upon 
the  carburetor  to  shut  off  the  flow  when  the  engine  is 
standing  idle. 

Gasoline  which  has  stood  long  in  the  carburetor 
while  the  engine  is  idle  may  become  stale  and  life- 
less;  then  it  must  be  drawn  off  and  new  gasoline  sub- 
stituted by  priming  before  the  engine  will  start  readily. 

Back  firing  is  sometimes  caused  by  too  close  needle 
valve,  as  well  as  by  water  or  dirt  in  the  gasoline ;  in 
fact,  anything  which  so  reduces  the  supply  of  gaso- 
line that  the  fuel  mixture  is  too  poor  may  be  the 
prime  cause  of  a  back  fire. 

Occasionally  a  continuous  spray  is  thrown  from  the 
inlet.  A  larger  pipe  for  the  air  inlet  may  remedy  this ; 
if  not,  discard  for  a  new  one. 

If  the  correct  mixture  at  normal  speed  is  too  rich 
at  low,  release  auxiliary  valve  spring  a  little ;  if  too 
weak,  increase  tension  on  spring.  If  this  makes 
spring  too  stiff  for  ordinary  speeds,  reduce  needle  or 
enlarge  intake  opening  slightly. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE   IGNITION   SYSTEM. 

113.  Difficulties  of  the  Problem. — To  fire  a  single 
charge  of  fuel  mixture  is  a  simple  matter.  To  intro- 
duce and  extinguish  from  one  hundred  to  fifteen  hun- 
dred separate  flames  per  minute  into  the  same  re- 
ceptacle used  for  receiving  and  compressing  the  gas 
at  just  the  right  instant  to  ignite  the  charge  at  the 
momicnt  of  complete  compression,  without  missing  a 
charge,  is  entirely  beyond  the  working  possibilities  of 
any  igniting  agent  known  to  man  but  the  electric 
spark. 

114.  The  Effect  of  Failure. — The  occasional  miss- 
ing of  a  charge  not  only  entails  a  waste  of  fuel  and 
power  which  becomes  more  and  more  serious  as  the 
size  of  our  engine  increases ;  it  leaves  a  portion  of  the 
missed  charge  to  accumulate  in  the  cylinder  to  pre- 
ignite  or  to  form  too  rich  a  mixture  with  the  next 
charge,  or  to  ignite  later  in  the  muffler,  creating  back 
pressure  and  making  an  active  working  force  against 
the  power  of  the  engine. 

115.  The  Open  Flame  Method. — The  problem  was 
first  met  by  the  use  of  a  continuous  igniting  agent 
which  was  shut  away  from  the  cylinder  excepting  at 
certain  points  in  the  cycle  of  the  engine.  The  idea 
has  been  fairly  successful,  though  more  or  less  trouble 
arises  from  the  fact  that  no  separating  device  has 
been  obtained  that  is  absolutely  instantaneous  in  its 
action,   and    the    operating    delay   increases    with    the 

III 


112 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


soot  and  dirt  accumulation  of  actual  use.  Still  it  was 
with  the  aid  of  this  system  that  the  first  gasoline  en- 
gines were  made  to  run. 

This  is  referred  to  merely  as  a  matter  of  history; 
it  is  no  longer  of  mechanical  importance,  as  the 
method  has  long  ago  been  abandoned.  It  was  found 
that  the  exploding  impulse  of  the  engine,  as  well  as 
outside  disturbing  elements,  was  likely  at  any  time 
to  extinguish  the  flame ;  hence  the  system  required 
constant  attention  and  was  even  then  unreliable. 

ii6.     Hot  Tube  Ignition. — This  has  been  fairly  suc- 


FiG.  30.— Bent  Hot  Tube  Igniter. 


cessful  and,  though  nearly  discarded  for  the  electric 
spark,    enough   hot   tube    engines    are   still   in    vise   to 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  113 

merit  attention.  As  first  produced,  an  iron  tube  was 
heated  by  means  of  a  Bunsen  burner  flame  and  the 
heat  conducted  by  means  of  the  iron  tube  to  the  ignit- 
ing chamber.  In  this  way  the  flame  itself  was  pro- 
tected from  the  blast  of  the  explosion.  The  intense 
heat  and  pressure,  however,  caused  the  tubes  to  break 
down  from  very  brief  service,  and  porcelain  has  been 
substituted  for  iron.  These  do  not  oxidize  and,  though 
somewhat  easily  broken  in  *the  setting  or  through  ac- 
cident, when  once  in  place,  they  frequently  last  for  a 
year  or  more  at  a  less  cost  than  for  a  single  cell  of 
dry  battery. 

Nickel-alloy  rods  are  now  the  favorite  with  hot  tube 
engine  men,  as  their  life  is  even  greater  than  porce- 
lain and  they  are  not  so  apt  to  be  broken  by  accident. 

The  hot  tube  system  is  confined  almost  wholly  to 
stationary  engines  in  the  oil  fields  and  elsewhere, 
where  fuel  is  cheap  and  the  speed  irregularities  due 
to  missed  charges  are  not  important. 

117.  Firing  by  Compression. — The  compressing  of 
gas  raises  its  temperature,  and  some  have  hoped  to 
use  this  very  feature,  which  limits  the  compression 
possible  to  give  gasoline  without  danger  of  pre-igni- 
tion,  for  the  purpose  of  firing  the  charge  at  just  the 
right  moment.  This  would  do  away  with  the  entire 
electrical  ignition  system  and  at  the  same  time  allow 
greater  compression.  While  experiments  along  this 
line  have  been  quite  successful,  the  device  as  yet  is 
not  in  general  use. 

118.  Firing  by  Electricity. — Nearly  all  gasoline  en- 
gines of  the  farm  type  are  fired  by  electricity,  the 
only  known  igniting  agent  that  is  quick  enough  and 
dependable  enough  to  fire  every  charge  of  an  engine 
at  high  speed.  Perhaps  the  greatest  objection  to  it 
is  the  special  electrical  knowledge  which  the  operator 


114         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

needs,  and  which  even  the  trained  general  mechanic 
may  not  always  possess.  For  this  very  reason,  more 
electrical  troubles  arise  than  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
engine  combined  and  they  are  harder  to  locate  be- 
cause the  current  itself  is  invisible. 

1 19.  Gasoline  Engine  Electrical  Knowledge. — 
Without  attempting  to  go  into  the  details  of  elec- 
tricity, the  electrical  appliances  in  common  use  in 
engine  ignition  will  be  named,  briefly  described,  and 
their  exact  uses  designated,  always  with  a  view  to 
being  practically  rather  than  scientifically  accurate  in 
terms. 

120.  The  Four  Electrical  Processes  and  Their 
Agents. — ist.  Producing  the  current.  Agencies,  bat- 
tery of  cells,  wet  or  dry  (the  chemical  process),  or 
the  magneto  or  dynamo   (mechanical  process). 

2nd.  Intensifying,  either  by  means  of  the  spark  coil 
or  in  the  magneto  itself  as  sometimes  made. 

3rd.  Conveying  the  current.  This  includes  wires 
or  cable  of  both  high  and  low  tension,  the  switch,  bind- 
ing posts,  and  terminals,  and  distributor. 

4th.  The  current  breakers,  which  change  the  in- 
visible current  into  a  point  of  intensely  hot  spark. 

The  general  meaning  of  all  of  these  should  be  fa- 
miliar to  all  engine  men. 

121.  Producing  the  Electric  Current. — Two  meth- 
ods are  in  use  for  the  production  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent ;  from  a  battery  (usually  composed  of  dry  cells) 
and  by  means  of  a  magneto.  The  latter  is  practically 
a  small  dynamo,  which  is  run  at  high  speed  by  being 
belted  or  geared  to  the  engine,  either  with  tooth  or 
friction  gear. 

122.  The  Dry  Battery. — A  dry  battery  consists  of 
two  or  more  dry  cells  (usually  four  to  six  in  a  gaso- 
line engine),  connected  bv  wires  so  that  all  the  cells 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


115 


act  together  as  one,  but  with  united  intensity.     Each 
cell  is  capable   of  producing,  when   fresh,   about    i>< 


Ni/t- 


Q)epolarizer 


,T)epolarT2fir 


Fig.  31. — Sectional  Views  of  Standard  Dry  Cells.     A — European 
Construction.     B — American  Design. 


volts  of  electric  current  through  a  luiion  of  chemical 
and  mechanical  action. 

123.  What  the  Cell  Contains. — The  cell  as  usually 
made  consists  of  a  zinc  cup  about  six  inches  long  and 
two  and  a  half  across,  open  at  one  end.  This  is  the 
positive  element  of  the  battery,  from  which  the  nega- 
tive current  is  obtained.  An  inch  of  pitch  or  some 
non-electrical  conductor  covers  the  bottom ;  then  a 
carbon  rod  in  held  upright  at  the  center  and  the  space 
around  it  packed  with  manganese  dioxide  or  some 
other  depolarizing  material,  then  filled  with  sawdust 
or  some  good  absorbent  over  which  a  solution  of  25 
per  cent,  to  30  per  cent,  of  sal-ammoniac  and  water 
is  poured  to  saturation.  The  top  is  sealed  with  pitch 
and  the  outside  usually  wrapped  with  light  straw- 
board.     A  binding  post   at  the   edge   of  the  cup  and 


ii6 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


the  top  end  of  the  carbon  form  the  two  poles  of  the 
cell. 

124.  Connecting  the  Cells  in  a  Battery. — Unscrew 
the  cap  from  binding  post  of  a  carbon  rod  and  wrap 
a  short  piece  of  insulated  copper  wire,  with  the  end 
scraped  bare  and  bright,  tightly  around  it  in  the  di- 
rection the  cap  turns  to  tighten;  then  return  cap, 
screwing  it  down  firmly  to  insure  good  contact. 
Fasten  the  other  end  of  the  same  w^ire  in  this  manner 


SPARK  COIL^ 

Fig.   32. — Showing   Dry    Cell    Battery   Wired   in    Series. 

to  the  zinc  cup  of  the  next  cell.  Connect  all  the  cells 
in  the  same  way,  always  joining  zinc  to  carbon.  This 
is  called  connecting  in  series,  and  the  whole  number  of 
cells  connected  form  the  battery.  It  is  not  correct  to 
speak  of  a  single  element  or  cell  as  a  battery.  The 
wire  for  this  connection  should  be  at  least  No.  14 
(though  No.  10  or  12  is  better)  and  must  be  insulated 
or  the  current  w^ill  short-circuit,  just  as  w^ater,  cir- 
culating through  a  network  of  pipes,  would  take  the 
shortest  course  that  was  open  to  it. 

125.     Life  of  Dry  Cells.: — The  life  of  a  dry  cell  is 
uncertain  with  the  best  of  care.    One  cell  may  become 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  117 

exhausted  in  a  few  weeks  and  another  of  the  same 
make  last  as  many  months.  Abuse  soon  exhausts 
them,  such  as  connecting  them  up  with  a  spark  coil 
for  an  interesting  display  of  electric  sparks.  One  run- 
down cell  in  the  battery  weakens  the  rest  and  should  be 
removed.  Under  fair  treatment  the  average  life  of  a 
fresh  cell  is  probably  between  three  and  six  months, 
though  many  fail  before  that  time  and  some  have 
gone  much  longer. 

126.  Advantages  of  Dry  Cells. — Their  first  cost  is 
very  light,  from  25  cents  per  cell  up.  They  are  simple 
and  easily  connected  and,  if  let  alone,  do  not  get  out 
of  order  easily.  They  may  be  obtained  of  any  elec- 
trical supply  store  and  may  be  installed  by  any  one. 
They  are  ready  to  produce  a  spark  with  the  first  revo- 
lution of  the  fly  wheel ;  are  clean,  reliable  when  fresh, 
and  not  easily  broken. 

127.  Their  Defects. — They  are  uncertain  of  life  and 
not  generally  counted  reliable  after  a  month  old,  al- 
though the  writer  has  secured  good  results  from  cells 
that  had  been  in  the  engine  (though  not  in  steady  use) 
for  over  a  year.  Often  a  cell  will  become  worthless 
even  with  the  engine  standing  idle.  In  the  end  they 
are  expensive  because  of  the  constant  renewals. 

128.  Care  of  Dry  Cells. — Dry  cells  should  be  kept 
in  a  box  by  themselves,  and  other  things  kept  out  of 
it.  Pieces  of  wire  or  metal  tools  may  easily  form  a 
short  circuit  and  run  the  cells  down  very  rapidly;  so 
may  dampness ;  they  must  be  kept  dry  and  cool. 
Where  in  constant  use,  two  sets  so  wired  that  they 
may  be  used  alternately  will  greatly  increase  the  life 
of  both.  For  instance,  by  placing  two  sets  of  six  each 
wired  up  as  two  separate  batteries  and  used  on  alter- 
nate runs,  both  sets  will  last  much  longer. 

129.  A  Good  Battery  Arrangement. — A  plan  in  use 


ii8 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


en  some  of  the  motor  boats  of  the  United  States  sea 
service  is  worth  giving.  A  battery  box  of  galvanized 
iron  is  made  just  large  enough  to  hold  twelve  cells 
and  hot  paraffine  poured  into  the  bottom.  On  this  the 
cells  are  set  in  their  paper  cases,  and  two  or  three 
inches  of  paraffine  poured  around  them.  They  are 
then  connected,  six  in  series,  and  the  two  batteries 
used  alternately  an  hour  at  a  time.  A  lump  of  lime 
laid  in  the  box  will  absorb  all  moisture.  Used  in  this 
way,  cells  frequently  stand  the  hardest  kind  of  con- 
tinuous ocean  service  for  a  space  of  six  months. 

130.     Connecting  Battery  to  Engine  for  Spark. — A 
battery  of  six  cells  ought  to  give  about  nine  volts  of 


GROUND  WJRE 

Fig.  33. — Simple  Jump  Spark  Wiring  System. 


electric  energy.  Connection  is  made  with  wire  from 
the  terminal  carbon  to  the  positive  binding  post  of  the 
spark  or  induction  coil  through  the  primary  circuit, 
which  carries  the  direct  current  from  the  batteries. 
The  negative  post  in  this  coil  leads  to  the  timer  and 
the  positive  pole  of  the  battery  connects  with  the  iron 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


119 


of  the  engine  frame,  which,  being  a  conductor,  forms 
a  part  of  the  circuit  through  the  timer.  From  the 
negative  pole  of  the  secondary  circuit,  the  high  tension 
wire,  the  current  goes  to  the  spark  phig,  which  is 
usually  located  in  the  end  of  the  cylinder. 

131.  The  Spark  Coil. — This  is  really  an  induction 
or  Ruhmkorff  coil  placed  in  the  path  of  the  current 
to  store  and  intensify  it.  It  consists  of  a  magnetic 
core  containing  many  turns  of  insulated  wire  wound 
like  a  spool  of  thread.  The  secondary  or  high  tension 
current  is  much  more  intense  than  the  primary,  and 


Fig.  34. — Jump   Spark  Vibrator  Coil   for  One   Cylinder  Ignition. 

gives  a  much  hotter  spark.  This  spark  coil  is  rather 
a  delicate  affair,  which  should  only  be  disturbed  by 
those  who  fully  understand  it.  Though  it  contains 
little  that  is  likely  to  get  out  of  order,  a  break  in  any 
part  of  the  insulation  along  its  many  coils  of  wire 
would  cause  a  short  circuit  and  make  rewinding  nec- 
essary. About  all  the  care  a  novice  is  called  upon  to 
give  it  is  to  see  that  water  and  abrading  substances 
are  kept  away  from  it  and  that  the  connections,  spark- 
ing points,  etc.,  are  kept  clean  and  bright.  The  sys- 
tem of  connecting  here  given  is  specially  intended  for 
the  jump  spark  or  high  tension  method  of  tiring. 


120 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


132.  The  Spark  Plug. — Reference  to  the  illustra- 
tion will  show  two  platinum  wire  points  at  the  inner 
end  of  the  spark  plug  which,  together  with  the  insu- 
lating substance,  comprise  the  essential  parts.  One 
of  these  wires,  cut  off  from  electrical  connection  with 
the  other  and  with  the  rest  of  the  plug  by  the  insula- 
tion, is  attached  by  means  of  the  binding  post  at  the 
top  with  the  high  tension  cable ;  the  other  is  in  direct 
communication  with  the  cylinder  and  engine  frame. 

133.  How  the  Spark  Is  Formed. — So  long  as  an 
electric  current  can   pass   Avithout  interruption  along 


ELECTRODE   -. 
BUSHING 

8PARK  POINT  \ 

:^^^       TERMINAL  NUT 
^H^MICA  INSULATION 

jL:             PLUG  SHELL 
~^       SPARK  GAP 

Fig.  zS- — Sectional  View  of  Spark  Plug. 


a  good  conducting  medium  like  copper  wire,  it  is  silent 
and  invisible.  It  is  only  when  w^e  obstruct  its  passage 
by  throwing  a  non-conductor  in  its  path  that  it  at- 
tempts to  break  down  the  opposition,  just  as  a  creek 
will  try  to  leap  over  the  dam  that  stops  its  course.  A 
broken  circuit  with  a  layer  of  air  between  the  ends 
forms  such  an  obstruction.  If  the  ends  are  reason- 
ablv  near  and  the  current  is  strong,  it  will  undertake 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  121 

to  jump  across  the  gap,  carrying  minute  particles  of 
the  metal  along  with  it  and  heating  these  and  all  float- 
ing particles  in  the  air  to  a  white  heat  as  a  proof  of 
the  energy  it  has  made  use  of  in  jumping  the  gap. 
This  is  the  spark  we  see. 

134.  How  It  Fires  the  Charge. — No  amount  of  elec- 
tricity passing  along  a  wire  of  sufficient  carrying  ca- 
pacity would  cause  an  explosion  in  a  keg  of  gun- 
powder so  long  as  it  was  not  interrupted ;  in  fact,  it 
is  not  the  current  itself  that  does  the  igniting  but  the 
floating,  heated  particles  where  the  break  is.  The 
only  difl'erence  between  this  and  hot  tube  ignition  is 
that  the  tube  is  heated  in  the  one  case  and  the  floating 
particles  in  the  other;  but  the  heat  from  the  spark  is 
much  more  intense  and  easier  to  regulate.  When  the 
timer  closes  the  circuit  and  allows  the  current  to  pass 
through  the  wire  it  is  suddenly  interrupted  by  this  air 
gap  between  the  platinum  points  and,  if  the  current 
is  strong  enough  and  there  is  a  space  of  only  about 
1-32  to  1-16  of  an  inch  between  the  points,  it  leaps 
across,  heating  the  particles  in  the  air  to  a  white  heat. 
This  heat  is  sufficient  to  ignite  the  fuel  vapor. 

135.  The  Jump  Spark. — This  is  the  so-called  jump 
spark  or  high  tension  system,  and  on  account  of  its 
simplicity  and  ease  of  operation,  it  has  rather  the 
lead  among  enginemen,  especially  for  farm  work. 
There  is  little  about  it  to  get  out  of  order  and,  when 
the  points  become  worn,  as  they  finally  will,  under 
the  repeated  heating,  the  spark  plug  may  be  renewed 
for  something  like  a  dollar. 

136.  The  Make  and  Break. — Some  engines  use  the 
make  and  break  or  low  tension  system.  This  consists 
of  two  metal  points  inside  the  engine  cylinder,  one  of 
which  is  movable  and  is  operated  by  mechanical  means. 
These  points  are  usually  in  contact,  and  a  current  of 


122  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

electricity  passing  through  them  is  not  interrupted  as 
by  the  air  gap  in  the  spark  plug ;  then,  at  the  moment 
when  the  charge  is  to  be  fired,  the  contact  points  are 
pulled  apart  and  when  the  contact  is  broken  a  spark 
leaps  between  the  two  points.  The  make  and  break 
system  furnishes  rather  the  hottest  spark,  and  the  ef- 
ficiency of  an  engine  has  frequently  been  increased  by 
substituting  it  for  the  jump  spark  system.  The  points 
and  sliding  mechanism  are  more  liable  to  get  out  of 
order  than  stationary  points,  in  the  presence  of  carbon 
accumulation  and  intense  heat,  and  are  less  accessible 
for  cleaning  or  repairing  than  the  plug,  which  screws 
into  the  cylinder  at  the  top.  For  these  reasons  prin- 
cipally, the  jump  spark  method  seems  to  have  the  call 
among  the  non-professional  engine  owners,  while  very 
many  of  the  experts  favor  the  make  and  break  system 
because  of  the  more  dependable  service  obtained  from 


Fig.    36. — Bosch    Magneto,    Exterior   View. 

the  hotter  spark  in  the  presence  of  variable  or  faulty 
mixtures,  and  the  increased  power  given  the  engine 
by  firing  the  charge  more  promptly  at  the  most  ef- 
ficient moment  and  condensing  the  time  of  impulse. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


123 


137.  The  Magneto. — Although  the  first  cost  of  the 
magneto  is  several  times  that  of  a  battery  of  dry  cells, 
it  is  cheapest  in  the  end  for  a  good  engine,  as,  once 
installed,  it  requires  practically  no  attention  or  re- 
newal expenses  for  years.  It  also  gives  a  hotter  spark 
and  greater  engine  efficiency,  especially  under  adverse 
conditions  of  fuel  or  temperature  where  firing  is  dif- 
ficult. For  an  old  or  cheap  or  worn-out  engine  the 
expense  would  hardly  be  justified;  nor  possibly  for 
one  which  stands  idle  a  great  part  of  the  time.  Aside 
from  the  greater  efficiency  of  the  hotter  spark,  the 
question  is  one  between  first  cost  and  maintenance 
cost,  of  which  the  first  has  to  be  met  but  once  and  the 
latter  is  continuously  to  be  reckoned  with. 

138.  How  It  Works. — It  differs  from  a  dynamo  in 


Fig.   2>7- — Longitudinal  Sectional  View  of  Bosch   Magneto. 


principle  mainly  in  that  the  armature  revolves  be- 
tween permanent  field  magnets  of  steel  instead  of 
electro-magnets  consisting  of  a  soft  iron  or  steel  core 


124 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


wound  with  wire.  Because  of  this  difference,  the 
magneto  may  be  run  at  any  desired  speed  or  the  speed 
may  be  varied,  while  that  of  a  dynamo  must  be  con- 
stant. 

A  handful  of  wire  nails,  each  brought  in  contact 
with  a  common  horseshoe  magnet,  becomes  a  separate 
magnet  which  may  be  used  to  pick  up  small  metallic 


Rear 


view 


Fig.    38.— Rear 


View    of     Bosch     Magneto, 
Breaker  and  Distributor. 


Showing    Contact 


objects.  If  a  wire  be  wound  loosely  around  the  mag- 
net without  touching  it,  each  coil  of  the  wire  may  be 
said  to  have  become  a  separate  magnet  and  the  total 
strength  of  all  these  separate  magnets  will  make  up 
the  strength  of  the  so-called  magnetic  field.  If  a  soft 
iron  were  substituted  for  the  magnet  and  a  current  of 
electricity  passed  through,  the  magnetic  action  of  the 
surrounding  coil  would  be  much  more  intense,  but 
would  only  remain  while  the  current  was  passing, 
while  the  magnetism  set  up  by  the  steel,  though  less 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  125 

intense,  remains  in  all  parts  of  the  coil  on  which  it  has 
exerted  its  influence.  This  second  magnetic  or  electric 
action  set  up  in  the  coil  is  called  an  induced  current 
because,  instead  of  being  created  by  direct  contact 
with  some  source  of  electrical  or  magnetic  fluid,  it  has 
been  influenced  or  induced  into  existence. 

By  increasing  the  number  of  turns  of  wire  in  the 
coil  and  revolving  it  rapidly  between  magnetic  or 
electrical  fields,  this  induced  current  may  be  greatly 
strengthened  until  what  began  as  a  feeble  magnetic 
impulse  in  the  magnet  finally  becomes  an  electric  cur- 
rent of  considerable  intensity.  The  armature  on  which 
this  coil  is  carried  is  wound  in  two  parts,  the  first 
consisting  of  a  few  turns  of  coarse  wire,  and  the  second 
of  many  turns  of  fine  wire,  all  of  which  has  to  be  in- 
sulated with  some  nonconductor  of  electricity  its  en- 
tire length.  The  electrical  influence  or  current  set  up 
in  this  coarse  or  primary  winding,  as  it  is  called,  is 
frequently  interrupted  by  a  mechanically  operated 
circuit-breaker,  so  that  the  current  is  allowed  to  flow 
only  by  short  jerks.  These  interruptions  to  the -pri- 
mary current  set  up  an  induced  current  in  the 
secondary  or  large  coil  of  fine  wire  which,  intensified 
as  it  is  by  the  hundreds  of  turns  of  wire,  becomes  so 
intense  that,  when  it  presently  passes  over  the  high 
tension  cable  to  the  spark  plug  and  there  finds  a 
break  between  the  firing  points,  it  promptly  leaps  the 
gap,  forming  an  intensely  hot  spark. 

As  this  spark  is  only  produced  by  the  breaking  of 
the  primary  circuit  it  is  necessary  for  the  magneto  to 
be  set  in  definite  relation  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  en- 
gine, so  that  the  break  will  occur  at  the  instant  the 
engine  piston  is  at  the  right  point  for  the  firing  of  the 
charge.  This  calls  for  positive  drive,  and  belt  or  fric- 
tion drive,  possible  with  dynamo,  cannot  be  used  in 


126         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

connection  with  high  tension  magneto.  Just  why  this 
secondary  current  is  induced  when  the  primary  current 
is  interrupted  would  require  pages  of  explanation. 
Electricity,  however,  is  a  lazy  fellow  so  long  as  things 
run  smoothly.  It  is  when  he  is  interfered  with  that  he 
puts  forth  his  energies  and  does  work  or  exerts  useful 
energy.  The  above  description  is  of  an  alternating 
current,  high  tension  magneto,  suitable  for  the  jump 
spark  system  of  firing  with  spark  plug.  They^  are 
driven  by  suitable  worm,  spur  or  bevel  gears  from  the 
crank  shaft  of  the  engine  and,  once  installed,  need  no 
attention  for  years  beyond  an  occasional  oiling  of  the 
bearings.  Some  of  them,  like  the  one  described,  have 
a  revolving  armature.  In  others  the  armature  is  sta- 
tionary, while  the  magnets  revolve. 

139.  Low  Tension  Magnetos. — The  low^  tension 
magneto  is  for  the  make  and  break  system  of  igni- 
tion, in  which  the  current  does  not  have  to  be  intense 
enough  to  jump  a  gap,  but  simply  follows  out  the 
moving  point  for  an  instant  as  the  contact  is  broken, 
forming  a  short  electric  arc.  It  is  also  used  for  the 
high  tension  or  jump  spark  system  in  which  is  in- 
stalled a  separate  intensifier  or  spark  coil.  It  works 
like  the  high  tension  magneto  excepting  that  there  is 
no  secondary  winding,  while  the  one  coil  of  wire  con- 
sists of  moderate-sized  wire. 

140.  Care  of  Magneto. — In  general  terms  the  less 
attention  the  magneto  gets  from  the  amateur  the  bet- 
ter, for  onl}^  an  electrical  expert  understands  how  to 
reassemble  them.  x\ll  the  parts  which  ordinarily  need 
readjustment  are  easily  accessible;  the  rest  should  all 
be  let  alone.  A  little  oil  should  be  used  on  the  parts 
where  it  was  intended,  but  oil  dropped  carelessly  on 
the  coil  softens  the  insulation  and  may  easily  ruin 
the  winding.     A\^ater   may   cause  short   circuits  also. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


127 


While  most  magnetos  are  regarded  as  water-proof,  the 
term  is  only  relative  and  intended  for  emergency 
safety  only,  not  for  weeks  or  months  of  exposure  to 
the  weather.  Rust  also  attacks  the  connections.  If 
properly  cared  for  the  winding  of  a  magneto  ought  to 
be  good  for  three  to  five  years  and  the  magnetic  field 


Fig.  39. — Showing  Ignition   Magneto  In   Place  on   Engine  Base. 

should  last  from  eight  to  fifteen.  Even  then  it  can 
be  renewed  for  a  dollar  or  less.  If  the  spark  becomes 
uniformly  Aveak  the  magnets  may  need  remagnetiz- 
ing  or  a  winding  may  be  broken  down  at  some  point. 
This  is  not  a  repair  job  for  the  amateivr,  but  before 
sending  the  magneto  back  to  the  works  for  repairs  be 
certain  that  is  where  the  trouble   is  located.      ]\Ianu- 


128 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


facturers  say  that  at  least  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  mag- 
netos and  coils  sent  back  to  the  shop  for  rewinding  are 
all  right  and  that  the  trouble  is  in  some  other  part  of 
the  engine. 

141.  Where  the  Double  System  Is  Best. — Not  all 
magnetos  produce  a  spark  with  the  first  revolu- 
tion of  the  fly-wheel ;  some  are  even  reluctant  about 
sparking  at  all  under  the  low  speed   available  while 


CPCyNO  TO  CTiClNZ  FRAME 


Fig.  40. — Simple  High   Tension  Wiring  System,  Using  Batteries 
and  Magneto. 


the  engine  is  turned  by  hand.  In  other  words, 
the  spark  is  not  produced  until  the  engine  starts  and 
so  runs  the  magneto,  while  the  engine  will  not  start 
without  the  spark.  Some  operators  use  a  double  igni- 
tion system.  A  battery  of  dry  cells  is  installed  to 
start  the  engine ;  then  it  is  switched  of¥  and  the  mag- 
neto used  the  balance  of  the  time.  This  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  combination,  though  with  some  of  the 
better  grade  magnetos  now  on  the  market  the  spark 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


129 


is  produced  so  promptly  that  the  auxiliary  battery  is 
not  needed. 

142.  What  the  Primary  Circuit  Includes. — The 
jump  spark  or  high  tension  system  has  both  a  primary 
and  a  secondary  circuit;  the  make  and  break  usually 
but  one.  The  primary  circuit  includes  the  battery, 
the  primary  or  inner  wire  coil  of  the  induction  coil, 
the  contact  breaker  or  buzzer  and  the  commutator  or 
timer.  Its  object  is  to  magnetize  the  core  of  the  spark 
coil  and,  after  the  current  has  been  set  up,  to  operate 
the  contact  breaker  or  vibrator  and  set  up  a  secondary 
induced  current  by  the  interruption  of  the  primary 
circuit. 

143.  The  Secondary  Circuit. —  This  includes  the  fine 
or  secondary  coil  of  the  induction  coil,  and  the  spark 


Fig.  41. — Low  Tension  or  Make  and  Break  Spark  Wiring  System, 
Using  Magneto  With  Batteries  as  Auxiliary  Source  of  Current. 


plug,  and  high  tension  cable.  Its  mission  is  to  in- 
tensify the  primary  current  by  induction,  and  to  con- 
vey it  to  the  engine  cylinder,  where  the  spark  gap  that 
fires  the  charge  is  located. 


130  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

144.  The  Wiring  System. — The  wiring  system 
should  be  short  as  possible  and  of  heavily  insulated 
wire  or  cable.  The  best  high  tension  cable  used  in 
connecting  the  spark  plug  with  the  coil  is  much  larger 
than  the  lower-powered  conductor  and  consists  of  a 
number  of  tinned  copper  wires,  often  as  many  as 
twenty,   twisted   together   and   covered  by   successive 


Fig.   42. — High   and    Low    Tension    Current    Conductors. 

layers  of  insulating  tape.  The  low  tension  wire  con- 
nects the  carbon  terminal  of  the  battery  with  the  posi- 
tive pole  on  the  coil.  It  usually  consists  of  several 
fine  copper  wires,  around  which  several  layers  of  in- 
sulation are  wound.  A  second  wire  of  the  same  ma- 
terial runs  from  the  negative  pole  of  the  battery  to  a 
ground  connection — usually  the  frame  of  the  engine. 
From  the  negative  pole  of  the  coil  a  third  wire  con- 
nects with  the  timer. 

It  is  important  to  see  that  all  of  these  wires  are 
thoroughly  connected  with  clean  contacts,  and  the 
nuts  on  the  binding  posts  screwed  down  tightly,  and 
that  the  connections  are  free  from  rust.  A  good  var- 
nish for  the  terminals  may  be  made  of  sealing  wax 
dissolved  in  gasoline,  with  enough  linseed  oil  to  pre- 
vent its  being  brittle.  Short  circuiting  is  sometimes 
caused  in  damp  or  foggy  weather  by  a  drop  of  water 
getting  in  below  the  fly  nut  holding  the  high  tension 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  131 

cable,  and  across  the  porcelain  of  the  plug  and  hence 
to  frame. 

145.  Ignition  Timing. — Ignition  timing  is  a  me- 
chanical rather  than  an  electrical  process,  and  the  fir- 
ing time  must  work  in  harmony  with  the  intake  valve, 
though,  like  that,  it  should  be  regulated  by  comparison 
with  the  position  of  the  piston. 

The  earlier  the  spark,  so  long  as  pounding  does  not 
result,  the  greater  the  power  of  the  engine;  and  the 
later  the  spark,  the  weaker  the  impulse. 

Theoretically,  the  charge  should  be  fired  with  the 
piston  exactly  at  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke, 
but  it  takes  an  instant  of  time  to  fire  the  whole  charge; 
and  unless  the  spark  occurs  a  little  in  advance  part  of 
the  stroke  is  lost  before  the  expansion  of  the  gases 
catch  up  with  the  piston. 

As  a  rule,  when  running  at  250  R.  P.  M.,  the  spark 
should  come  at  about  %  or  even  %  compression 
stroke.  Some  fuels  fire  more  promptly  though 
than  others,  and  the  amount  of  compression  also 
in  some  measure  affects  the  amount  of  advance 
which  can  be  allowed.  When  there  is  an  excess  of 
air  in  the  mixture  the  power  of  the  engine  is  increased 
by  advancing  the  spark,  but  if  gasoline  is  in  excess  it 
is  likely  to  be  diminished.  Gasoline  of  high  quality 
burns  more  promptly  than  the  heavier  oils,  and  the 
timing  should  be  later.  For  65  or  68  degrees  Baume 
distillate  25  or  30  degrees  crankshaft  travel  below  the 
inward  center  is  not  far  wrong;  but  the  spark  should 
be  adjusted  on  the  fuel  used  and  then  the  point  marked 
on  the  fly-wheel.  In  a  two-cylinder  four-cycle  engine, 
having  located  the  point  for  one  cylinder,  the  other 
mark  should  be  diametrically  opposite,  while  in  a  four- 
cycle four-cylinder  engine  the  points  would  be  90° 
apart,  and  the  timer  driven  at  one-half  engine  speed. 


132         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

146.  Irregular  Mechanism.— In  the  make  and 
break  system  the  igniter  has  a  perceptible  lag  be- 
tween trip  of  the  sparker  and  the  formation  of  the 
spark,  and  the  faster  the  engine  runs  the  greater  num- 
ber of  degrees  this  lag  covers,  measured  by  crank 
revolution.  If  all  the  cylinders  were  alike  this  lag 
Avould  be  the  same  for  all,  and,  once  adjusted  to  one, 
the  others  would  fall  into  step.  If  one  of  them  has  a 
weaker  or  a  stififer  spring  the  lag  may  vary  in  length, 
and  a  weaker  explosion  in  one  cylinder  result. 

147.  Spark  Follies.— To  change  the  governor  springs 
without  changing  the  spark  to  meet  the  new  condi- 
tion is  wasteful  foolishness.  If  the  engine  is  to  be 
run  faster  the  spark  should  be  advanced. 

To  start  the  engine  without  retarding  the  spark  is 
still  worse.  Set  for  normal  conditions,  it  is  far  too 
much  advanced  for  the  slow  speed  of  hand  cranking, 
and  a  pound  or  back  kick  is  almost  a  certainty.  Aside 
from  great  danger  of  a  broken  arm,  this  impulse 
against  the  ascending  piston  is  a  strain  upon  bearings, 
piston,  and  all  of  its  connections. 

Do  not  run  any  length  of  time  on  retarded  spark. 
Advance  it  gradually  until  the  full  power  of  the 
engine  is  developed,  but  not  enough  to  pound. 

A  good  place  to  learn  useful  lessons  on  spark  tim- 
ing is  behind  the  exhaust,  studying  the  character  of 
the  escaping  gases. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
A    CHAPTER   ON    ENGINE   REGULATION. 

148.  Controlling  an  Engine. — The  two  distinct 
phases  of  engine  regulation  that  require  separate  treat- 
ment as  such  are  speed  and  temperature  control.  Of 
these  two  the  former  will  be  first  considered. 

149.  The  True  Mission  of  the  Speed  Controller. — 
A  good  many  engine  operators  have  gone  trouble- 
hunting  around  the  governor  when  there  was  nothing 
in  the  world  the  matter  except  a  mistaken  idea  of  its 
mission.  When  an  engine  operates  for  any  length  of 
time  at  greater  than  its  normal  speed  without  being 
automatically  checked  there  is  something  wrong  with 
the  governor.  When  it  drops  below  normal  the  gov- 
ernor fails  to  act  because  there  is  nothing  for  it  to 
do.  The  fault  is  in  the  load,  the  fuel,  or  the  engine. 
The  governor  is  intended  only  to  control  speed  when 
it  attempts  to  rise  above  the  normal.  With  the  speed, 
when  on  account  of  overload  or  poor  fuel  it  drops  be- 
low normal,  it  has  nothing  whatever  to  do,  although 
many  people  seem  to  think  the  governor  should 
keep  the  speed  up  to  the  standard  as  well  as  down 
to  it. 

Governors  are  not  speed  creators.  Their  sole  mis- 
sion is  preventing  the  speed  from  rising  above  a  cer- 
tain standard  and,  when  we  change  their  adjustment, 
we  merely  change  the  standard  at  which  they  operate, 
and  not  their  mission.  This  idea  should  be  firmly 
fixed  in  the   mind,  as  a  wrong  conception  of  it   has 

133 


134  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

been  the  cause  of  endless  confusion  with  many  engine 
operators. 

150.  A  Few  Rules  to  Remember. — When  the  en- 
gine at  normal  speed  is  under  full  load  the  governor 
is  unnecessary,  and  is  not  in  action. 

If  the  load  is  increased  a  few  pounds  the  speed  may 
fall  a  trifle  below  the  normal ;  still  the  governor  will 
be  unnecessary  and  inactive. 

If  the  load  is  decreased  a  little  so  that  the  speed  of 
the  engine  is  inclined  to  rise  above  normal,  the  gov- 
ernor, if  in  working  order,  promptly  checks  the  ten- 
dency and  brings  it  back  to  normal ;  then  it  ceases 
to  act,  and  is  no  longer  necessary  until  the  speed  at- 
tempts to  rise  again. 

In  only  one  of  the  three  conditions  cited,  the  last, 
is  the  governor  at  fault  if  it  remains  inactive.  In  the 
first  there  is  no  fault ;  in  the  second,  the  trouble  is 
with  the  fuel,  or  the  load  is  too  heavy  for  the  engine, 
or  some  part  of  the  latter  is  out  of  adjustment.  In 
the  last,  unless  the  speed  is  quickly  brought  back  to 
normal,  the  fault  is  certainly  with  the  governor.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  regulating  a  rise 
of  speed  such  as  may  follow  the  sudden  throwing  off 
of  a  full  load  requires  a  moment  or  two  for  the  gov- 
ernor to  adjust  itself  to  its  work  and  regain  control. 

151.  What  Changing  Governor  Adjustment  Does. 
— We  may  set  the  governor  so  as  to  allow  the  engine 
to  run  below  its  normal  speed;  then  it  will  keep  it 
continually  below  and  hold  it  steady  at  that  speed 
under  variable  loads,  but  the  engine  will  not  develop 
full  power. 

We  may  set  it  for  a  higher  than  normal  speed  in 
order  to  increase  the  power;  then  the  governor  will 
not  respond ;  it  has  no  speed  of  its  own  to  contribute. 
If  there  is  no  load  the  engine  itself  may  have  suf- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  135 

ficient  power,  when  unchecked,  to  run  up  to  the  higher 
speed  the  same  as  a  runaway  horse  or  a  runaway 
steam  engine  might  climb  up  above  the  normal.  This 
would  be  due  to  the  released  powers  of  the  uncon- 
trolled engine  and  not  to  any  contribution  from  the 
governor.  It  is  the  natural  inclination  of  any  engine 
when  running  light  to  exhaust  its  surplus  energy  in 
extreme  speed.  It  will  do  this  always  unless  re- 
strained by  a  governor  or  a  load  that  just  consumes 
its  entire  capacity.  Either  one  is  sufhcient  to  control 
it  and  one  is  just  as  good  as  the  other,  while  one  is 
quite  as  helpless  as  the  other  to  add  to  the  speed  from 
any  energy  of  its  own. 

152.  Methods  of  Governing. — The  speed  of  an  over- 
industrious  engine  may  be  moderated  in  either  of 
three  ways:  by  retarding  the  spark,  by  limiting  the 
supply  of  fuel,  and  by  changing  its  quality.  To  ac- 
complish one  or  more  of  these  we  use  one  of  three 
methods,  which  we  designate  as  Ignition  Control,  the 
Hit-and-Miss  system,  and  the  Throttling  method.  As 
considerable  has  already  been  said  with  regard  to  the 
first  in  Chapter  VII,  we  will  now  concern  ourselves 
with  the  other  two  methods. 

153.  Regulating  the  Fuel. — The  fuel  supply  is  reg- 
ulated through  the  valves.  Sometimes  the  exhaust 
valve  is  kept  from  opening;  then  the  burned  gases  re- 
main in  possession  and  new^  fuel  cannot  enter,  so  the 
engine  misses  fire  and  loses  power  impulses  until  the 
speed  returns  to  normal  and  the  governor  ceases  to 
interfere.  Sometimes  it  is  the  intake  valve  that  is 
regulated,  either  by  reducing  the  volume  of  vapor  ad- 
mitted and  so  reducing  both  the  compression  and  ex- 
plosion pressure,  or  by  cutting  ofif  the  gasoline  only, 
and  so,  without  reducing  compression,  introducing  a 
fuel  that  will   not  explode  at  all  ;  or,  if  it  does,  with 


136 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


greatly  diminished  energy.  In  many  smaller  engines 
the  fuel  supply  is  cut  out  entirely  and  the  engine's 
speed  responses  to  this  method  are  quite  prompt  but 
rather  wasteful. 


Fig.  43.— Method  of  Speed  Regulation  Through  Valves. 


154.  The  Hit-or-Miss  System. — There  are  a  great 
variety  of  mechanical  devices  for  making  these  changes 
in  the  fuel,  most  of  which  may  best  be  studied  direct 
from  the  engine.  None  of  them  involve  any  mysteri- 
ous or  new  principles.  In  general,  a  push  rod  presses 
against  the  valve  stem  at  properly  timed  intervals  and 
opens  it.  When  the  speed  increases  the  engine  gov- 
ernor operates  some  chain  of  mechanical  contrivances 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  137 

to  deflect  this  push  rod  from  its  usual  course,  so  that 
it  does  not  touch  the  stem ;  then  the  valve  remains 
closed.  In  a  four-cycle  engine  there  is  no  chance  for 
the  governor  to  change  the  valve  operation  oftener 
than  once  in  two  revolutions,  so  it  may  require  some 
little  interval  of  time  before  the  speed  of  an  engine, 
suddenly  released  of  its  full  load,  would  be  reduced 
much,  and  this  system,  while  very  economical  and  re- 
liable, is  not  suitable  for  engines  intended  for  driving 
cream  separators,  electric  generators  or  any  such  ma- 
chinery requiring  the  maximum  of  steadiness. 

155.  The  Throttling  Governor. — Like  the  hit-or-miss 
type,  the  throttling  system  of  government  is  almost 
as  varied  as  the  different  makes  of  engines.  They  vary 
the  size  of  the  charge  instead  of  cutting  it  out  entirely, 
and  are  considered  the  best  for  close  regulation. 

156.  Types  of  Governors. — Either  of  these  forms  of 
speed  control  may  be  secured  by  one  of  several  types 
of  controllers,  the  most  common  of  which  are  the 
centrifugal,  the  pick  blade  and  inertia  governors.  Each 
has  its  limitations. 

157.  The  Centrifugal  Governor. — The  centrifugal 
governors  all  depend  upon  the  principle  that  a  weight 
revolving  rapidly  around  a  center  tends  to  swing  out 
from  the  center.  Two  arms,  each  fitted  with  a  weight 
at  the  outer  end,  are  hinged  at  opposite  sides  of  a 
shaft  to  a  sleeve  which  is  free  to  slide  upon  the  shaft. 
To  regulate  the  results  of  this  tendency  to  swing  out 
a  spring  is  attached  to  each  weight,  tending  to  hold  it 
toward  the  center.  The  mechanism  controlling  the 
feed  of  the  engine  gets  its  initial  movement  from  the 
swinging  outward  of  these  weights  beyond  a  certain 
point.  The  springs  try  to  restrain  the  weights  within 
that  point,  but  when  the  latter  are  whirled  by  the  speed 
of  the  engine  up  to  a  certain  velocity  their  tendency 


138 


The  Gasoline  Exgine  on  the  Farm 


to  swing  away  from  the  center  overcomes  the  power 
of  the  spring  and  the  restraining  mechanism  ;  then  as 
the  speed  decreases  the  centrifugal  pull  is  reduced  so 
that  the  springs  again  overcome  it.  This  type  of  gov- 
ernor may  take  the  form  of  two  fly-balls,  familiar  to 
all  as  a  part  of  the  steam  engine ;  or  they  may  consist 
of  weights  in  any  form  and  may  be  attached  to  the 
cam  shaft,  the  crank  shaft,  the  fly-wheel  or  any  other 
rapidly  revolving  part  of  the  engine.     Xearly  all  farm 


Fig.   44. — Centrifugal   Governor  Attached   to   Carburetor. 

engines  are  fitted  w^ith  some  form  of  governor  of  this 
type. 

158.  The  Pick-Blade  Type. — A  swinging  or  pen- 
dulum device,  which  receives  its  motion  from  some 
moving  part  of  the  engine,  is  attached  to  a  push  rod 
or  "pick-blade"  which  at  ordinary  speed  swings  into  a 
notch  in  a  rod  or  lever  operating  the  valve.  AVhen  the 
speed  of  the  engine  increases  beyond  a  certain  point 
this  blade  swings  outward  too  quickly  and  misses  the 
valve  lever;  hence  the  valve  remains  closed.  The 
operating   speed    of   this    type    of   governor    may    be 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


139 


changed  by  regulating  the  swing  of  the  pendulum  by 
means  of  a  thumb  nut. 

159.     Care    of    the    Governor. — The    care    of    the 
governor  consists  mainly  in  keeping  its  bearings  clean 


Fig.  45. — Pick-blade  Governor,  Showing  Cam  Action, 
and  supplied  with  an  ample  amount  of  good  lubricant 
without  excess.  To  overcome  the  tendency  of  dirt  to 
settle  into  the  oil  and  gum  so  that  it  will  not  work 
freely,  clean  occasionally  with  kerosene ;  then  apply 
fresh  oil.  Changing  the  governor  should  be  avoided 
unless  for  some  well  defined  object.  Usually  it  is  set 
to  keep  the  engine  at  that  speed  at  which  it  wall  do 
the  best  all  around  service,  and  every  change  brings 


140  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

one  a  little  nearer  to  the  time  when  governor,  valve 
area,  and  the  spark  timing  will  be  out  of  harmonious 
adjustment. 


e 


o 


Fig,  46. — Side  View  of  Cam  Action  on  Lever. 

160.  Governing  by  Ignition. — Spark  control  can 
only  be  applied  within  very  restricted  limits,  as  all  of 
its  possibilities  lie  between  the  point  where  a  reverse 
impulse  is  fired  against  the  piston  and  that  w^here  the 
spark  is  so  late  that  the  full  volume  of  the  pressure 
never  reaches  the  piston  at  all.  These  limits  may  be 
approximated  at  about  30°  of  the  outward  stroke 
before  dead  center  and  perhaps  one-fourth  as  much 
after.  To  retard  the  spark,  too,  is  very  wasteful,  and 
it  is  customary,  when  this  method  is  used,  to  unite  it 
with  some  form  of  throttling  also.  In  fact,  the  same 
results  may  be  obtained  with  throttling  alone  and, 
aside  from  such  special  reasons  for  retarding,  as  when 
hand-cranking  and  starting  the  engine,  it  seems 
preferable  to  depend  upon  governing  the  speed  with- 
out interfering  with  the  spark. 

161.  Controlling  the  Temperature. — Although  the 
internal  combustion  engine  is  essentiall}^  a  heat  en- 
gine and  the  conservation  of  all  heat  produced  would 
seem  to  be  a  matter  of  fuel  economy,  there  are  reasons 
why  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  a  cooling  system  and 
destroy  a  part  of  our  high  temperature  after  we  have 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  141 

obtained  it.  First  of  these  reasons  is  the  danger  of 
pre-ignition.  If  the  combustion  chamber  was  allowed 
to  remain  at  the  high  temperature  it  attained  at  the 
moment  of  ignition  all  subsequent  charges  of  fuel 
would  be  fired  the  instant  they  entered  the  chamber, 
before  the  latter  could  be  filled  or  the  charge  com- 
pressed. Such  extreme  temperatures,  too,  would  soon 
heat  the  metal  too  hot  to  operate  and  put  the  piston 
out  of  business.  For  the  protection  of  the  lubricants 
used  in  the  cylinder  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  tem- 
perature be  controlled. 

162.     The  Usual  Systems. — Practically  all  farm  en- 


FiG.   47.— Type  of  Air  Cooled   Cylinder  Used   On   "New   Way" 

Engines. 

gines  are  cooled  by  one  of  two  methods :  air  and  water. 
Oil  cooled  engines  have  been  built,  and  some  of  them 


142         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

have  done  good  work,  but  they  are  not  in  common  use 
under  such  conditions  as  the  average  farm  would  have 
to  meet. 

163.  The  Air  Cooled  Engine. — For  small  size  en- 
gines air  cooling  is  a  favorite  method,  especially  where 
the  engine  is  not  usually  run  under  full  load  for  more 
than  a  few  hours  at  a  time.  Air  cooled  engines  are 
light  and  easily  moved,  a  quality  that  is  quite  im- 
portant in  the  farm  motor,  especially  the  small  engine, 
wdiich  is  used  to  do  the  chores  and  hand  work  about 
the  barn  and  house.  They  are  also  simpler,  have 
fewer  parts  and  for  these  reasons  are  less  costly.  In 
cold  weather  they  have  a  decided  advantage ;  a  bit  of 
forgetfulness  does  not  mean  a  burst  water  jacket.  The 
extra  parts,  too,  of  the  water  cooled  engine  all  have  to 
be  cared  for,  cleaned  occasionally,  kept  supplied  with 
water,  and  in  correct  operation. 

164.  The  Water-Cooling  System. — For  long  jobs 
though,  or  where  the  engine  has  to  work  under  a  full 
load,  the  water  cooled  system  is  the  best,  especially 
for  heavy  engines.  Water  temperatures  are  far  more 
stable  than  air  and  the  danger  of  overheating  and 
warping  some  part  of  the  engine,  that  always  con- 
fronts with  the  air  cooled  system  more  or  less,  is  en- 
tirely absent  when  water  cooling  is  adopted.  Water 
cooling  also  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  a  more  con- 
stant temperature,  after  it  is  once  regulated.  An  ef- 
ficient cooling  system,  too,  will  decrease  radiation 
losses  and  increase  working  energy,  while  poor  cool- 
ing decreases  power.  The  variation  from  this  source 
alone  may  be  from  15  to  35  per  cent,  of  the  heat 
generated. 

165.  The  Open  Jacket  Method. — Usually  the  water 
jacket  is  a  part  of  the  engine  casting,  the  cylinder  walls 
being  cast  double  and  the  space  between  filled  in  with 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  143 

water.  The  water,  as  it  heats,  boils  and  evaporates; 
then  of  course  it  has  to  be  renewed.  This  method  has 
the   advantage   of    using   a   small    amount   of   water, 


Fig.   48. — Depicting  Flow  of  Water   Through  Jackets   of  Water 
Cooled   Engine. 

which  can  be  easily  replaced;  so  there  is  no  objection 
to  opening  the  drain  pipe  at  night  and  allowing  the 
jacket  to  empty  in  freezing  weather. 

166.  The  Circulating  System. — Frequently  a  tank  of 
greater  height  than  its  diameter  is  located  beside  the 
engine,  from  the  bottom  of  which  connection  is  made 
with  the  bottom  of  the  water  jacket.  A  similar  con- 
nection is  made  between  a  point  near  the  top  of  the 
jacket  and  the  tank.  Once  filled,  the  circulation  of 
the  water  is  automatic,  the  heated  water  rising  in  the 
jacket  and  flowing  from  the  upper  outlet  over  to  the 


144 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


tank  while  the  cooler  water  of  the  tank  is  replacing  it 
through  the  lower  connection  in  the  bottom  of  the 
jacket.     Sometimes   a  pump   is   connected   with   this 


TAPPET 
ARM 
INLET 
VALVE 

SPRING 


INLET  VAL 
CHECK 

GASOLINE 
FEED  CUR 


Fig.  49. — Sectional  View  of  Cylinder  of  I.  H.  C.  Engine,  Showing 
Integrally  Cast  Hopper  Used  in  Open  Jacket  Cooling  System. 


system    and    the    water   forced    through    by    positive 
action  of  the  engine. 

167.  A  Good  Circulating  Pump  System. — One  plan 
now  in  quite  general  use  in  the  cooling  of  small  size 
engines  allows  the  water  to  fall  at  the  top  of  an  in- 
verted cone  and  so  spread  out  to  the  air  in  a  relatively 
large  thin  surface  as  it  descends  by  its  own  weight. 
This  makes  quite  an  efficient  cooler  in  which  com- 
paratively little  water  is  required.  With  this  system, 
a  pump  is  needed  to  elevate  the  water. 

168.  Other  Systems. — While  there  are  a  great  va- 
riety of  water-cooling  designs  upon  the  market,  prac- 
tically all  of  them  depend  upon  the  action  of  gravity, 
of  an  engine  pump,  of  difference  in  temperature,  or 
the  diversion  of  some  running  stream.     Of  all   these 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  145 

systems  the  last  is  the  most  costly  because  the  more 
wasteful  of  heat  units.  Gravity  feed  is  all  right  if 
nothing  goes  wrong  with  it,  but  there  is  constant 
danger  of  some  obstruction,  the  resistance  of  which 
it  will  not  have  force  enough  to  overcome ;  so,  though 
it  is  the  more  complicated  and  costly  in  the  beginning, 
some  form  of  forced  circulation  is  the  best. 

169.  Amount  of  Water  to  Use. — The  least  quan- 
tity of  water  that  will  keep  the  temperature  of  the 
engine  down  so  that  the  water  itself  remains  only  a 
little  below  the  boiling  point  is  the  best  quantity  to 
use  and,  having  once  determined  what  this  is,  the 
only  deviation  from  it  should  be  such  as  the  differ- 
ence of  conditions  might  require.  An  engine  work- 
ing steadily  at  full  load  will  have  a  greater  tendency 
to  heat  than  one  only  partially  loaded  or  that  has  fre- 
quent intervals  of  rest.  As  a  rule  the  most  efficient 
results  will  be  obtained  with  the  cooling  water  some- 
where between  190°  and  200°,  or  just  a  little  below  the 
boiling  point. 

170.  Care  of  Water  System. — In  cold  weather  the 
full  advantage  of  an  air  cooled  engine  is  realized  if 
one  ever  forgets  and  allows  the  water  to  freeze  up. 
Modern  engines  are  now  very  generally  constructed 
with  a  system  of  cooling  which  is  claimed  to  be  ex- 
empt from  frost  dangers,  and  to  a  limited  extent  this 
is  true.  Wherever  water  is  used,  however,  in  cold 
weather  it  is  a  part  of  the  care  of  an  engine  to  see 
that  the  pipes  and  water  connections  are  in  some  way 
secured  from  danger. 

Where  the  circulating  system  is  used  see  that  the 
water  really  circulates,  and  clean  out  the  sediment 
occasionally.  If  the  scale  is  hard  use  one  pint  muriatic 
acid  to  from  four  to  ten  times  its  volume  of  water,  ac- 
cording to  condition  of  the  scale.    Be  sure  and  add  the 


146         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

acid  to  the  water,  not  the  water  to  the  acid.  Let  this 
mixture  remain  from  12  to  48  hours,  and  then  flush 
thoroughly. 

171.  Anti-freezing  Mixtures. — These  are  nearly  al- 
ways injurious  to  the  metal  and  should  not  be  vised 
except  where  absolutely  necessary,  as  chemical  action 
of  some  sort  is  almost  certain  to  result.  Practically 
all  of  them  depend  upon  some  form  of  oil,  alcohol  or 
salt. 

Where  the  circulating  system  is  not  in  contact  with 
zinc,  aluminum  or  galvanized  iron,  3^  to  4  lbs.  cal- 
cium chloride  to  each  gallon  of  water  is  cheap  and 
effective,  but  with  zinc  it  starts  a  destructive  action 
similar  to  electric  battery.  The  salt  sediment  is  also 
inclined  to  settle  and  make  trouble. 

Thirty  per  cent,  of  glycerine  in  water  will  not 
freeze  before  15°  above  zero  is  reached,  and  55%  will 
stand  a  temperature  of  10°  below.  This,  however,  is 
expensive  and  contains  acid. 

One-third  alcohol  and  %  water  will  stand  15°  below 
zero  and  is  not  harmful,  but  the  alcohol  will  gradually 
evaporate  out. 

A  mixture  of  15  parts  alcohol,  15  of  glycerine  and 
70  of  water  will  not  freeze  above  10°  and  also  raises 
the  boiling  point  to  a  higher  point.  Glycerine  is  in- 
jurious to  rubber  tubing,  though,  and  any  alcohol 
solution  loses  its  original  proportions  gradually  when 
exposed  to  the  open  air.  Where  a  temperature  as  low 
as  15°  must  be  met,  as  much  as  25%  alcohol  must  be 
used  in  mixture  to  render  them  effective.  If  below 
zero,  not  less  than  30%  should  be  used.  AYood  alcohol 
has  no  sediment  and  does  not  corrode  machinery. 
Twenty  per  cent,  of  wood  alcohol  and  80%  water 
is  suitable  for  ordinary  weather. 

When  the  temperature  falls  to  40°  draw  the  water 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  147 

from  the  jacket,  cylinders,  pipes  and  pump.  It  takes 
a  surprisingly  small  amount  of  cold  sometimes  to  burst 
a  pipe  or  a  brass  connection.  If  the  tank  is  in  some 
danger  and  the  refilling  of  it  too  much  of  a  task,  dis- 
connect the  outlet  pipe  and  stop  with  a  cork  plug  that 
will  blow  out  under  pressure  before  the  tank  itself 
would  burst.  A  few  rods  let  down  in  the  water,  but 
with  ends  sticking  out  above  the  surface,  will  help  a 
little,  the  freezing  water  not  infrequently  shoving  the 
surface  ice  upward  at  the  weakened  point  around  the 
rod,  and  thereby  gaining  considerable  extra  space  be- 
low to  accommodate  the  expansion. 

172.  Utilizing  Waste  Heat. — Under  average  condi- 
tions something  more  than  300  heat  units  or  over 
233,400  foot-pounds  energy  is  lost  through  the  dis- 
carded heat  passed  through  the  exhaust  valve  for  each 
pound  of  fuel  gas  consumed,  a  loss  which  somewhat 
exceeds  7  horse-power  per  pound  of  fuel.  Various  de- 
vices have  been  tried  for  making  use  of  this  wasted 
energy  and  some  of  them  have  been  fairly  successful 
while  others  have  occasioned  so  much  interference 
with  the  discharge  of  the  burned  gases  from  the  en- 
gine that  the  back  pressure  and  disturbed  combustion 
resulted  in  a  greater  additional  loss  than  the  gain 
amounted  to.  Aside  from  its  use  for  heating  purposes, 
either  to  assist  the  carburetor  in  cold  weather  or  for 
other  uses,  there  is  probably  little  chance  of  turning 
this  lost  heat  into  profitable  channels. 

A  number  of  successful  experiments  have  been  tried 
out  in  heating  small  rooms  or  even  small  buildings 
with  this  otherwise  wasted  heat  and  several  special 
heating  devices  have  been  put  upon  the  market.  A 
home  made  heater  of  fair  efficiency  can  be  made  by 
connecting  an  ordinary  pipe  expander  by  means  of  a 
collar  coupling  with  the  exhaust  of  the   engine   and 


148         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

extending  it  by  means  of  a  larger  pipe  up  through  a 
tank  of  water.  The  larger  this  pipe  the  greater  will 
be  the  heating  surface  and  the  less  interference  there 
will  be  with  the  exhaust  blast  from  the  engine.  A 
twenty  gallon  tank  of  water  can  be  brought  to  the  boil- 
ing point  in  from  30  to  60  minutes,  and  by  providing 
for  its  circulation  or  by  passing  a  series  of  air  pipes 
through  across  the  tank  and  with  open  ends  both  the 
hot  water  and  hot  air  can  be  utilized  in  heating.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  there  is  no  leak  in  the  pipe  which 
will  allow^  water  to  run  down  into  the  exhaust  and 
so  back  to  the  engine  cylinder. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE   CRANK   SHAFT   AND   ITS    BEARINGS. 

173.  The  Engine  Frame. — It  seems  so  utterly  im- 
possible to  construct  an  engine  of  any  sort  without 
a  frame  that  we  are  apt  to  consider  its  presence  forced 
upon  us  without  any  definite  use.     It  has,  none  the 


Fig.  50. — Main  Bearings  Incorrectly  Placed.     Strain  of  Explosion 
Impulse  Exerted  Directly  Against  Cap  and  Bolts. 


less,  a  number  of  important  uses.  First,  it  supports 
the  engine  and  provides  a  means  of  anchoring  it  se- 
curely to  any  independent  foundation  we  wish  to  erect. 
It  also  holds  the  various  parts  of  the  engine  rigid  and 
in  correct  relation  with  each  other;  keeps  the  crank 
shaft  in  line  with  the  piston  stroke  and  its  connec- 
tions, and  gives  to  all  a  stability  that  could  never  be 
attained  unless  these  various  parts  were  securely  tied 

149 


I50 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


together  by  all  being  fastened  rigidly  to  this  common 
base. 

Gasoline  engine  frames  should  be  specially  strong. 


Fig.  51. — Main  Bearings  Placed  so  a  Twisting  Strain  Comes  On 
Cap  and   Bolts   Every  Impulse. 

not  only  to  resist  the  series  of  blows  or  shocks  which 
come  to  them  with  each  power  impulse,  but,  in  the 
case  of  large  engines,  to  absorb  in  their  body  in  some 


Fig.  52. — Main  Bearings  Correctly  Placed — All  Stress  Taken  by 
Bed   of  Engine. 

measure  the  vibration  which  would  otherwise  seri- 
ously afifect  the  more  delicate  parts.  In  the  case  of 
horizontal  engines  the  bed  design  should  be  such  that 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


151 


the  force  of  the  impulse  impinges  against  a  portion 
of  the  frame  provided  to  receive  it  rather  than  against 
the  bolted  union  between  the  cap  and  bed  of  the  main 
bearings.  (See  Figs.  50  to  52.)  The  base  plate  of  a 
horizontal  engine  should  always  be  so  set  that  the 
cylinder  is  inclined  slightly  toward  the  crank  shaft 
in  order  to  drain  the  lubricating  oil  away  from  rather 
than  toward  the  inner  part  of  the  combustion  chamber. 
174.  The  Crank  Shaft. — The  crank  shaft  has  not 
inappropriately  been   called  the  backbone  of  the   en- 


FiG.  53. — Single  Throw  Crankshaft. 

gine.  It  must  receive  the  full  powder  of  the  engine, 
must  deliver  it  to  the  driven  machinery,  and  must  be 
strong  enough  to  give  and  to  receive  the  impulse  under 
a  twisting  strain  instead  of  a  straight  pull.     It  should 


Fig.   54. — Three   Throw   Crankshaft,   With   Counterpoise   or   Bal- 
ance   Weights. 


be  made  of  the  best  mild  steel  and  the  crank  should 
be  cut  out  of  a  mass  of  metal  rather  than  forged  on. 
The  crank-pin  should  be  designed  to  stand  a  strain 
of  400  pounds  per  square  inch  of  piston  area,  and  the 


152         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

diameter  of  the  shaft  in  the  main  bearings  should  be 
about  1.25  times  the  diameter  of  the  crank-pin.  The 
length  of  the  main  bearings  should  be  from  1.75  to  2 
times  the  diameter  of  the  shaft,  and  the  length  of  the 
projection  depends  upon  whether  the  belt  wheel  is 
bolted  to  the  fly  wheel  or  keyed  to  the  shaft.  If  the 
latter,  which  is  preferable,  the  shaft  should  be  only 
long  enough  to  engage  the  full  hub  of  the  pulley ;  then 
there  will  be  no  temptation  to  the  operator  to  set  the 
wheel  out  from  the  gearing  and  so  increase  the  twist- 
ing stress  on  the  shaft. 

In  order  to  make  the  shaft  run  more  smoothly 
weights  are  fastened  to  the  crank,  to  compensate  for 
its  weight  beyond  the  center  of  shaft  revolution. 


Fig,   55. — Gas  Engine  Flywheel  of  Approved   Design. 

175.     Fly    Wheels    and    Their    Mission. — It    is    the 

mission  of  the  fly  wheel  to  correct  any  unevenness  of 
speed  arising  from  the  intermittent  poAvers  of  the  gaso- 
line engine  or  from  varying  crank  positions  by  stor- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


153 


ing  up  excessive  bursts  of  energy  and  then  giving  it 
out  again  when  the  speed  tends  to  fall  below  normal. 
In  one  sense  they  act  as  a  governor,  but  they  do  more 
in  that  they  also  store  energy. 

176.  Heavy  Fly  Wheels  Needed. — The  heavier  the 
rim  of  the  fly  wheel,  the  greater  is  its  capacity  for 
equalizing  the  variable  speeds.  The  energy  given  by 
a  gasoline  engine  fluctuates  rapidly  from  its  full  max- 
imum power  to  the  point  where,  during  the  compres- 
sion stroke,  enero^v  is  being  consumed  instead  of  given 


Fig.  56. — Typical   Engine   Bearing,   Showing  Oil   Grooves   C  and 
Retaining   Plugs  A. 

out.  It  is  necessary  that  the  fly  wheel  rim  be  heavy 
enough  to  absorb  all  excess  energy  given  out  at  the 
instant  of  the  power  impulse  and  then  without  any 
sudden  change  of  velocity,  give  enough  of  it  back  to 
carry  the  engine  over  the  compression  stroke.  Centrif- 
ugal energy,  however,  inclines  the  swiftly  moving  rim 
to  leave  its  curved  path  around  a  center  and  take  up 
a  straight  one  tangent  to  it;  and  this  tendency  is 
stronger  in  a  heavy  wheel  than  in  a  lighter  one  re- 
volving at  equal  speed.     For  this  reason  the  point  is 


154         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

soon  reached  when  it  is  not  safe  to  further  increase 
the  weight  of  the  wheel  unless  we  reduce  its  veloc- 
ity, so,  in  order  to  provide  power  necessary  to  carry 
the  engine  past  its  compression  stroke,  we  divide  the 
weight  and  the  strain  between  tw^o  wheels  and  place 
one  at  each  end  of  the  shaft,  where  there  will  be  the 
least  unbalancing  and  twisting  of  the  shaft.  That  is 
why  so  many  modern  gasoline  engines  have  two  fly 
wheels.  There  are,  however,  several  distinct  ad- 
vantages in  a  single  wheel  of  greater  weight,  of  which 
these  are   perhaps  the   most   important : 

A  single  wheel  leaves  one  side  of  the  engine  more 
accessible. 

Any  variation  in  the  inertia  between  the  two  wheels 
sets   up  a  serious  twisting  strain   upon  the   shaft. 

With  the  one  wheel  a  third  bearing  has  to  be  pro- 
vided and  the  single  wheel  is  supported  on  each  side. 
This  is  usually  provided  though  only  with  large,  ex- 
pensive engines,  and  of  the  small  power  engines  of 
moderate  or  low  price  nearly  all  have  the  two  wheel 
system. 

At  about  250  revolutions  per  minute  engines  of  or- 
dinary farm  size  require  fly  wheel  weight  of  about  100 
pounds  per  horse-power  of  engine,  the  weight  being 
divided  between  the  two  wheels.  Hit-and-miss  gov- 
erned engines  require  somewhat  heavier  fly  wheels 
than  throttled,  while  an  engine  used  upon  a  variable 
load  can  use  to  advantage  greater  weight  than  one 
inclined  of  itself  to  run  with  a  steadier  motion.  Four- 
cycle engines  require  heavier  fly  wheels  than  two- 
cycle,  because  the  power  impulse  only  comes  at  every 
second  revolution. 

Fly  wheels  are  made  with  both  straight  and  curved 
spokes.  When  the  latter,  they  should  invariably  be 
put  on  the  shaft  so  they  will  revolve  with  the  advance 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  155 

part  of  the  spoke  next  the  rim.  A  safe  rim  speed  for 
cast  iron  wheels  of  approved  pattern  is  put  at  about 
5,000  feet  per  minute.  The  hub  should  be  2^/2  to  3 
times  the  diameter  of  the  shaft. 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  fly  wheel  be  prop- 
erly centered  and  balanced  on  its  shaft.  A  small 
amount  of  wabbling  increases  immensely  the  strain 
upon  the  rim  and  may  be  the  means  of  wrecking  the 
wheel.  See  to  it  occasionally  that  the  key  has  not 
become  loosened  enough  to  allow  of  any  independent 
motion  or  that  the  bearings  have  not  been  worn  until 
the  shaft  is  out  of  true. 

Never  remove  a  fly  wheel  from  the  shaft  if  possible 
to  avoid  it.  As  it  comes  from  the  factory,  a  fly  wheel 
seldom  works  loose,  but,  once  removed,  it  is  some- 
times almost  impossible  to  secure  it  safely  again.  A 
loose  fly  wheel  is  a  very  serious  matter  as  it  will 
almost  invariably,  on  a  high  speed  engine,  break  the 
crank  shaft  or  else  wreck  the  engine,  while  it  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  troubles  of  all  to  locate  on.  ac- 
count of  its  habit  of  imitating  to  perfection  the  knock 
which  is  associated  with  other  causes.  Often  it  mim- 
ics pre-ignition  admirably ;  while  other  familiar 
sounds,  such  as  produced  by  loose  bearings,  are 
produced.  Occasionally  the  w^heel  has  to  be  removed 
in  repairing  or  replacing  a  broken  part,  as  a  crank 
shaft,  but,  fortunately,  the  occasion  is  of  rare 
occurrence. 

177.  The  Main  Bearings. — The  smooth  operation 
of  the  crank  shaft  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon 
the  bearings,  their  construction,  condition  and  care. 
Bearings  should  be  long  and  heavy  enough  to  insure 
complete  support  under  the  heaviest  load  without 
strain.  Their  alignment  must  be  perfect.  They 
should  neither  be  too  loose  nor  too  tight  and  should 


156         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

be  an  accurate  circle.  The  lining,  too,  should  be  of 
suitable  material,  and  this  includes  the  lubrication,  as 
well   as   the  permanent  lining. 

178.  The  Best  Lining. — There  is  a  good  deal  of 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  material  should  be 
used  for  babbitting  the  boxes.  The  softer  alloys,  as 
true  babbitt  metal,  have  the  advantage  of  being  first 
to  suffer  in  case  of  lubrication  failure.  The  babbitt 
is  simply  melted  out  instead  of  a  crank  shaft  being 
ruined.  They  have  the  fault  of  not  only  being  too 
soft  to  wear  well ;  under  heavy  loads  they  tend  to 
break  down  and  spread,  though  under  moderate  loads 
their  very  pliancy  sometimes  keeps  them  best  fitted 
close  to  a  shaft  that  may  have  been  wearing  out  of 
form. 

Phosphor  bronze,  on  the  other  hand,  will  stand  up 
under  almost  any  load  and  seems  almost  unwearable ; 
but  should  lubrication  be  forgotten  it  begins  to  cut 
the  shaft  at  once  and  may  quite  ruin  it  before  the 
failure  has  been  noticed.  Some  of  the  hard  alloys 
are  liable  to  crack  and  if  their  surface  is  not  perfect 
the  high  and  low  spots  wear  unevenly  and  establish 
a  decided  tendency  to  cut. 

Linings  made  of  alloys  often  develop  a  tendency  to 
separate  into  the  original  metals,  either  on  account 
of  careless  mixing,  too  much  heat,  or  too  rapid  cool- 
ing. Sometimes  there  is  a  tendency  to  crystallize  into 
coarse  grains  which  are  brittle  and  worthless  for 
bearings. 

Lead  is  perhaps  the  best  wear-resisting  metal 
known,  but  it  is  too  soft  to  stand  the  pressure.  IMixed 
with  antimony,  the  resulting  alloy  stands  up  better 
under  pressure,  loses  some  of  its  wear-resisting  qual- 
ities, but,  on  the  whole,  is  quite  satisfactory  under 
certain  conditions.    An  alloy  made  up  of  but  two  sub- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farai  157 

stances,  however,  lacks  in  pliability;  hence,  three  or 
more  are  generally  preferred. 

In  lining  the  boxes  for  heavy  usage  one  important 
difference  should  always  be  remembered  between  the 
so-called  white  alloys  and  the  bronzes,  which  contain 
copper.  If  a  bronze  is  used  there  is  a  tendency  on  the 
part  of  the  copper  to  cling  to  the  revolving  shaft  and 
roughen  it.  This  of  course  increases  friction.  The 
white  alloys  begin  to  melt  instead,  and  the  softened 
metal  acts  as  a  lubricant,  reducing  the  friction  and 
protecting  the  shaft,  though  at  the  expense  of  the 
lining. 

179.  Why  Bearings  Heat. — Heating  may  be  caused 
by  insufficient  or  poor  lubricants,  or  by  being  too 
tight  or  too  loose,  or  by  the  shaft  or  bearing  being 
out  of  true.  There  cannot  be  a  fit  unless  the  journals 
are  true  cylinders,  and  there  is  a  tendency  with  gaso- 
line engines  to  flatten  at  the  points  of  highest 
pressure. 

In  the  latter  case  the  bearings  must  be  trued  up  by 
grinding;  the  shaft  by  grinding  or  filing;  and  this  is 
not  a  job  for  the  careless  or  the  amateur.  It  needs 
the  machinist's  accuracy.  As  a  rule  the  novice  had 
better  let  all  interference  with  the  shape  of  the  bear- 
ings strictly  alone  and  should  content  himself  with 
doing  what  can  be  done  by  means  of  oil.  The  treat- 
ment of  hot  boxes,  also  babbitting,  will  be  treated 
fully  in  another  chapter. 

180.  Gear  Wheels. — On  almost  all  makes  of  gaso- 
line engines  will  be  noticed  various  small  gear  wheels, 
cams,  push  levers  and  connecting  rods.  Most  of  these 
belong  to  the  valve,  ignition,  and  governing  systems, 
and  are  set  to  mesh  accurately  with  regard  to  each 
other  and  the  main  shaft.  To  change  the  set  of  any 
of  them  is  to  court  trouble  unless  the  exact  purpose 


158         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

of  the  wheel  is  fully  understood  and  the  change  is 
made  to  correct  a  previous  fault.  If  for  any  reason 
one  has  occasion  to  remove  any  of  these  wheels  from 
the  shaft  he  should  under  no  circumstances  fail  to  first 
mark  the  tooth  of  a  wdieel  and  the  depression  into 
which  it  meshes  with  its  mate.  Most  engines  are  so 
marked  when  they  come  from  the  factory ;  but  some 
are  not,  and  no  one  can  afford  to  take  any  chances 
without  positively  knowing  that  the  marks  are  already 
there. 

To  attempt  describing  all  of  these  trimmings  in 
detail  would  be  to  make  it  necessary  to  describe 
about  every  make  of  engine  on  the  market.  By 
keeping  in  mind  the  general  principles  already 
given,  a  little  study  of  the  engine  itself  will  soon 
disclose  the  purpose  of  each  and  how  it  is 
attained. 

181.  Care  of  These  Minor  Parts. — They  are  under 
no  strain  but  that  of  the  usual  friction.  All  the  at- 
tention they  require  as  a  rule  is  enough  oil  to  keep 
them  always  easy  to  operate,  and  free  from  gum  and 
dirt.  For  the  slides  an  occasional  dressing  of  graphite 
is  of  benefit.  Occasionally  a  w^ashing  off  with  kero- 
sene or  turpentine  will  relieve  of  gum,  and  a  dressing 
of  graphite  now  and  then  for  the  gear  wheel  teeth 
renders  them  smoother  and  causes  them  to  mesh  with 
less  friction. 

182.  Casual  Acquaintances. — Almost  every  engine 
outfit,  after  it  has  been  in  use  for  a  few  years,  has 
fittings  of  its  own  which  represent  the  needs,  wisdom 
or  whim  of  the  owmer.  Self-starters  are  becoming 
more  and  more  common  and,  while  they  are  not  very 
much  needed  for  engines  less  than  4  or  5  H.  P.,  and 
are  by  no  means  a  necessity,  even  for  a  considerably 
heavier  rating,  they  are,  of  course,   always  a  conve- 


Tpie  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  159 

nience,  providing  they  are  not  too  complicated  and 
costly. 

Gasoline  pumps  are  taking  the  place  of  gravity  feed 
with  stationary  and  even  portable  engines.  The  gaso- 
line is  pumped  up  from  a  tank  in  the  base  of  the  en- 
gine or  from  a  stationary  tank  below  in  such  quan- 
tity that  there  is  a  constant  excess  delivered  to  the 
carburetor;  then  a  return  pipe  is  provided  for  taking 
the  overflow  back  to  the  tank.  This  insures  that  the 
level  in  the  carburetor  remains  always  constant  and 
there  is  no  possibility  of  engine  variations  due  to  fluc- 
tuating supply  of  fuel. 

A\nien  purchasing  or  considering  any  uncommon  at- 
tachment one  should  first  consider  well  what  it  is 
for;  whether  it  was  created  just  to  sell  or  if  it  really 
fills  a  place  that  needs  to  be  filled.  If  the  latter,  it  is 
wise  to  next  consider  whether  the  work  it  will  do  is 
of  enough  importance  to  warrant  the  extra  expense, 
the  extra  care  and  attention  and,  most  important  of 
all,  whether  it  is  something  that  may  interfere  with  the 
working  of  the  engine,  either  by  obstructing  the  air 
intake  or  the  exhaust  or  any  other  part  of  the  system 
that  the  manufacturers  installed,  and  that,  left  alone, 
is   doing   satisfactory   service. 


i6o         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


CHAPTER    X. 

SETTING    THE    ENGINE. 

183.  Proper  Setting  Important. — Gasoline  engines 
are  practically  automatic  when  properly  installed. 
Under  less  favorable  conditions  they  are  only  par- 
tially so ;  hence,  it  is  important  to  give  them  the  best 
surroundings  possible. 

184.  Stationary  Foundations. — Stationary  founda- 
tions are  the  most  constant  in  their  requirements. 
They  also  afiford  the  best  chance  for  meeting  the  re- 
quirements, and  include  so  many  of  the  ideal  condi- 
tions which  all  foundations  should  aim  to  include,  that 
they  should  have  our  closest  study. 

185.  The  Four-fold  Object  of  a  Good  Founda- 
tion.— The  several  purposes  of  the  foundation  are  to 
support  the  weight  of  the  engine,  to  maintain  it  at 
a  fixed  position  in  relation  to  its  work,  to  protect  it 
from  outside  vibration,  as  of  other  moving  machinery, 
and  to  absorb  a  certain  amount  of  the  vibration  of  the 
engine.  A  stiff,  solid  clay  bed  probably  serves  this 
four-fold  purpose  better  than  any  other  common  sub- 
stance, as  it  is  firm  enough  to  do  the  work  and  at 
the  same  time  contains  enough  elasticity  to  retard 
the  dreaded  crystallization  which  always  sets  up  more 
or  less  in  metals  whenever  an  irresistible  force  is  made 
to  batter  persistently  against  a  rigid  object. 

186.  Depth  and  Nature  of  Foundation. — Surface 
clay,  however,  is  subject  to  its  own  disturbances,  so 
the  foundation  should  be  carried  well  below  the  surface 

161 


1 62 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


by  a  wall  of  stone  or  brick  or  concrete,  the  depth 
depending  a  great  deal  upon  the  size  of  the  engine 
and  the  nature  of  the  ground.  Ordinarily  a  depth  of 
three  feet  will  be  ample  for  engines  of  six  H.  P.  or 
less ;  4  feet  for  up  to  twelve  H.  P.  and  five  feet  for  as 
heavy  an  engine  as  twenty-five  horse-power,  or  as 
large  a  stationary  engine  as  a  farm  ever  needs. 


Id'- 


-/6- 


-/6' 


f 


=iJ 


-/(T- 


t±i 


nu 


C|/l 


-=M 


3f"- 


^S4"- 


-56" 


f—V-^t^ 


t? 


IB 


-fO'- 


b 


^ 


Fig.  58. — Gasoline  Engine  Base  Plan  to  Show  Amount  of  Space 
and    Holes    Needed    for    Installation. 


187.  The  Foundation  Blue  Print. — Every  station- 
ary engine  sale  should  include  a  foundation  blue  print 
prepared  at  the  factory.  The  lines  of  this  are  nearly 
always  measured  off  from  two  base  lines,  one  of  which 
follows  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft  and  the  other 
represents  the  center  lines  of  the  crank  shaft  and 
cylinder.  In  a  horizontal  engine  these  lines  are  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  and  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  the  foundation. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


163 


164  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

188.  Tying  Engine  to  Foundation. — The  operative 
strength  of  the  best  foundation  is  only  as  great  in 
relation  to  the  engine  as  that  of  the  ties  which  bind 
them  together.  But  it  is  occasionally  necessary  to 
loosen  an  engine  from  its  foundation,  and  the  fasten- 
ings must  be  such  as  may  be  released  with  the  least 
amount  of  labor,  while  at  the  same  time  making  it 
possible  to  secure  the  engine  as  firmly  as  possible 
whenever  that  is  desired.  This  double  consideration 
is  usually  attained  by  means  of  long  bolts  set  in  the 
concrete  and  extending  through  the  engine  bed  and 
almost  through  the  entire  concrete  foundation,  of 
which  they  are  virtually  a  part. 

189.  Material  Needed  for  Foundation. — In  addi- 
tion to  the  sand,  gravel  and  cement  needed  for  filling 
the  foundation  pit,  the  work  requires  as  many  long 
bolt  rods  as  there  are  bolt  holes  in  the  bed  of  the 
engine,  two  heavy  cast  washers  for  each  bolt,  with 
nuts ;  a  length  of  gas  pipe  for  each  bolt,  and  a  quan- 
tity of  inch  boards  for  the  templet. 

190.  Preparing  Material. — Let  us  suppose  we  are 
to  put  in  a  three-foot  foundation  for  a  small  engine. 
Each  bolt  should  be  just  long  enough  to  reach  through 
the  engine  bed,  two  cast  washers  of  suitable  size,  and 
two  nuts  (if  the  bolt  is  merely  a  rod  threaded  at  each 
end  and  without  head,  three  nuts  will  be  required), 
besides  all  but  a  few  inches  of  the  concrete  founda- 
tion. As  it  is  hard  to  get  such  long  bolts,  a  good 
way  is  to  obtain  an  iron  rod  of  proper  size  to  fit  the 
bolt  holes,  have  it  cut  into  lengths  by  a  blacksmith, 
one  end  threaded  for  nut  and  two  or  three  inches  of 
the  other  end  turned  sharply  at  right  angles  for  a 
head. 

For  each  bolt  provide  a  gas  pipe  covering,  the  in- 
side diameter  of  which  is  at  least  one-half  inch  larger 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


i6s 


than  the  bolt.  These  pipes  should  reach  from  the 
head  of  the  bolt  (or  the  washer  at  the  head,  if  one 
is  used),  to  the  surface  of  the  concrete  only. 

igi.  Making  the  Templet. — The  foundation  tem- 
plet is  usually  made  of  one-inch  boards,  and  in  the 
form  of  a  rectangular  parallelogram,  about  four  inches 
wider  and  longer  than  the  size  of  the  engine  bed.  This 
represents  the  surface  of  the  completed  foundation  and 
provides  for  a  two-inch  projection  all  around  beyond 
the  iron  frame.     Lay  off  on  this  the  line  AB  (see  Fig. 


^;^^1^^:^.^>>C^^f^* 

111 
1    1.  1 

/4 

1:     i 

1 
>- 

i          ^  ::i 

Fig.  6o. — Templet  for  Locating  Bolt  Holes. 


58),  along  the  center,  corresponding  with  the  center 
of  the  engine  cylinder  as  on  the  blue  print.  Measure 
off  on  this  line  from  each  end  the  distance  between 
bolt  hole  and  end  in  blue  print,  then  add  the  two-inch 
allowance  for  projection.  That  is,  if  the  bolt  holes 
are  four  inches  from  the  end  in  the  blue  print  lay 
them  off  six  inches  from  the  end  of  the  templet,  meas- 
uring along  the  line  AB  ;  and  at  these  points  on  that 
line  draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  AB  or  base  line. 
Locate  bolt  holes  on  these  lines  and  bore  holes  in 
templet  a  trifle  larger  than  the  bolts.  Slip  washer 
down  to  head  of  bolt,  then  put  on  length  of  pipe,  in- 
sert threaded   end  through  templet  from  under  side, 


i66         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

put  on  upper  washer  and  nut  and  draw  templet  tight 
between  nut  and  shoulder  made  by  pipe. 

192.  Making  a  Frame. — The  frame  of  small  engines 
is  usually  thick  enough  to  raise  the  fly  wheel  clear  of 
the  floor,  but  it  is  best  to  build  the  concrete  founda- 
tion a  few  inches  above  the  surface  and,  in  order  to 
have  this  form  square,  a  frame  is  necessary.  Some 
2  by  4-inch  stuff  is  about  right,  the  two  side  pieces 
being  somewhat  longer  than  the  foundation  for  con- 
venience in  lifting.  The  top  of  this  frame  will  be  on 
an  exact  level  with  the  top  of  the  foundation  and  upon 
it  we  will  lay  the  templet,  the  bolts  extending  down- 
ward into  the  pit  below.  The  frame  must  then  be 
shifted  until  square  with  the  lines  on  the  templet, 
the  latter,  of  course,  being  placed  to  exactly  conform 
Vv^ith  the  position  to  be  occupied  by  the  engine. 

193.  Filling  the  Pit. — Having  fastened  the  frame 
in  place  by  means  of  stakes,  remove  the  templet  and 
fill  the  pit  up  about  a  foot  with  concrete  made  from 
about  seven  parts  of  clean  sharp  gravel  (crushed  stone 
is  better)  to  one  of  good  cement.  Tamp  this  firmly 
and  then  replace  templet,  squaring  the  lines  carefully 
again  with  shafting,  sides  of  building  or  any  other 
lines  in  relation  to  which  the  engine  should  be  square ; 
also  see  that  the  frame  has  not  been  moved.  Fasten 
templet  on  frame  and  continue  filling,  tamping  down 
as  needed.  When  near  the  top  change  proportion  of 
concrete  to  about  five  to  one.  Continue  this  until 
within  three  or  four  inches  from  top  of  frame ;  then 
remove  nuts  and  washers  and  lift  off  templet,  being 
careful  not  to  disturb  the  pipes  encasing  the  bolts. 
Fill  to  the  top  of  frame  with  clean  sand  and  cement 
in  about  the  proportion  of  two  to  one.  The  founda- 
tion should  now  be  left  to  harden  thoroughly. 

194.  Placing  the  Engine. — To  set  a  heavy  engine 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  167 

upon  a  fresh  cement  foundation,  without  doing  mis- 
chief, requires  care.  Raise  engine  upon  blocks  at  one 
end  of  foundation  and  about  six  inches  above  it,  the 
block  being  topped  by  two  planks  long  enough  to  in- 
clude both  the  engine  and  the  foundation.  Holes  or 
notches  may  have  to  be  made  in  these  planks  to  avoid 
the  bolt  ends.  Slip  small  rollers  under  engine,  across 
the  plank,  and  work  the  engine  slowly  over  its  place 
on  the  foundation.  Keep  blocking  in  front  of  the  rol- 
lers constantly  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  the  en- 
gine getting  away.  As  one  roller  comes  to  a  bolt  end, 
slip  another  in  ahead  of  the  bolt  and  remove  the  first. 

195.  The  Final  Setting. — When  the  engine  is  ap- 
proximately in  position,  lower  gradually  until  the  bolts 
are  all  engaged  in  their  respective  holes  in  the  engine 
frame,  then  the  engine  should  be  carefully  lined  up 
with  any  shafting  which  it  is  expected  to  work  to 
when  set.  The  use  of  the  pipes  around  bolts  will  now 
be  appreciated,  as  they  give  far  greater  latitude  in 
this  shifting  or  in  correcting  slight  errors  than  could 
possibly  be  had  with  bolts  set  rigidly  in  concrete. 

196.  Locking  the  Bolts  in  Place. — When  the  en- 
gine is  finally  placed,  flow  a  mixture  of  water  and  pure 
cement  into  each  pipe  until  it  is  full,  then,  without 
shifting  it,  lower  engine  upon  the  concrete,  give  the 
lines  a  final  test  and  leave  the  engine  undisturbed  for 
a  couple  of  days  until  the  cement  hardens  in  the  pipes 
around  the  bolts.  The  result  will  be  a  job  that  is 
permanent,  and  as  perfect,  mechanically,  as  the  skill 
and  care  of  the  workman  have  seen  fit  to  produce. 

197.  Lining  Up. — Mention  has  been  made  of  lining 
up  with  a  line  shaft.  Where  the  engine  is  installed  in 
some  building  in  which  machinery  has  been  previously 
run  this  may  be  necessary,  though  it  is  usually  best 
to  set  the  engine  first  and  then  line  the  shafting  to 


1 68 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Far 


M 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  169 

it.  To  the  amateur  lining  to  a  shaft  may  prove  a  little 
difficult.  Two  methods  are  in  common  use,  the  over- 
head and  the  floor  method.  In  the  former,  a  straight- 
edge is  tacked  lightly  over  the  shaft  and  from  one 
edge,  at  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet  from  each  other, 
two  plumb  bobs  are  suspended.  The  straightedge  is 
then  shifted  until  each  of  these  lines  clears  the  side  of 
the  shaft  in  passing  it  by  exactly  the  same  distance, 
say  one  inch.  Never  undertake  to  drop  the  lines  so 
they  will  be  in  contact  with  the  shaft,  as  one  or  the 
other  is  almost  certain  to  be  slightly  deflected  by  the 
contact  to  some  extent — just  how  much  is  all  guess- 
work. 

Slide  the  engine  into  approximately  its  correct  posi- 
tion ;  remove  plumb  bobs  from  first  straightedge  and 
fasten  them  to  a  second  located  above  the  crank  shaft 
of  the  engine.  Measure  off  on  the  ceiling  equal  dis- 
tances between  the  ends  of  these  two  straightedges ; 
then  shift  engine  until  the  two  plumb  bobs  clear  crank 
shaft  b}'^  the  same  amount.  If  the  work  has  been 
accurately  done  the  crank  shaft  will  be  exactly  paral- 
lel with  the  line  shaft.  If  the  plumb  lines  trouble 
by  swaying  in  the  wind,  let  the  bobs  swing  into  pails 
of  water.  This  steadies  them  and  at  the  same  time 
does  not  interfere  with  their  taking  their  proper 
positions. 

198.  Leveling  the  Engine. — This  would  not  be  dif- 
ficult if  the  top  of  the  foundation  was  made  perfectly 
level  and  no  variation  in  the  engine  frame,  but  neither 
of  these  conditions  may  be  absolutely  true. 

It  is  the  crank  shaft  always  that  must  be  level ;  the 
rest  of  the  engine  has  been  built  to  that.  In  the  en- 
gine's longitudinal  direction,  the  setting  is  of  less  im- 
portance, the  preference  being  that  the  combustion  end 
of  the  cylinder  in  a  horizontal  engine  be  a  trifle  the 


170 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


highest  in  order  to  incline  the  lubricating  oils  toward 
the  other  end.  If  there  is  room  to  use  a  level  on  the 
crank  shaft  the  work  is  simple,  but  there  is  not  always 
room.  In  such  cases  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  take 
readings  from  the  level  applied  to  the  rim  of  the  fly 
wheel  turned  in  different  positions.  If  all  correspond, 
the  face  of  the  wheel  is  true,  and,  by  bringing  it  to  a 
correct  vertical  line,  the  shaft  will  be  level,  the  engine 
being  held  in  position  by  means  of  thin  wedges  in- 
serted before  the  nuts  are  fully  tightened. 

199.     Other  Foundations  and  Their  Failings. — Many 
less  substantial  foundations  are  in  use,  and  giving  fair 


Fig.  62. — Alethod  of  Reinforcing  Wooden   Floors, 


to  excellent  satisfaction.  Wooden  timbers  are  often 
used,  so  are  iron  girders,  reinforced  wooden  floors, 
even  the  earth,  scraped  smooth.  Vibration  troubles 
are  almost  sure  to  develop  some  time  when  an  engine 
is  set  directly  upon  a  floor  of  ordinary  strength. 
Girders  are  rather  expensive  for  small  engines  and  too 
rigid  for  large  ones,  the  crystallization  danger  being  in- 
troduced. Direct  earth  foundations  are  unexcelled  as 
vibration  absorbers  but  are  apt  to  collect  too  much 
dampness  for  the  good  of  the  machinery,  besides  being 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  171 

subject  to  changes  from  frost  and  other  causes  that 
throw  the  machinery  out  of  line. 

200.  A  Unique  Foundation. — Perhaps  the  simplest 
and  most  unusual  foundation  is  the  so-called  vacuum 
or  sheet  rubber  foundation,  in  which  a  thick  sheet  of 
rubber  is  spread  upon  the  bare  ground  or  floor.  The 
pressure  from  the  weight  of  the  engine,  it  is  claimed, 
binds  this  to  the  engine  and  the  ground  as  firmly  as 
bolts  would  and  at  the  same  time  deadens  the  vibra- 
tion and  reduces  the  running  strain  to  the  minimum. 
These  foundations  are  still  to  be  regarded  as  an  ex- 
periment and  not  many  of  them  are  yet  in  use. 


Fig.  63. — A  Gasoline  Engine  Driven  Concrete  Mixer. 

201.  Portable  Foundations. — Portable  foundations 
are  never  as  satisfactory  as  stationary,  because  they 
are  not  as  secure.  Only  the  small  engine  requires  them 
usually,  and  the  strain  is  not  great  enough  to  be  exact- 
ing. Many  of  the  smaller  sizes  are  bolted  to  light  sills 
Avith  handles  at  each  end  and  may  be  picked  up  and 


172          The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

carried  by  two  men.  When  running,  they  should  be 
secured  with  floor  hooks  or  by  some  form  of  staking 
down.  Even  wheelbarrow  foundations  are  on  the 
market ;  then  there  are  light  engines  designed  for  using 
on  a  binder  and  for  such  auxiliary  work,  that  may  be 
fastened  almost  anywhere  by  means  of  hooks  or  bolts 
or  some  special  form  of  frame.  For  the  larger  sizes 
sills  are  often  provided,  each  end  of  which  is  shaped 
like  a  sled-runner ;  then  it  is  little  trouble  to  hitch  a 
horse  to  either  end  and  move  the  engine  about  at 
will. 


Fig.   64. — A   Gasoline    Engine   Driven    Stone    Crusher. 

202.  Mounted  Engines. — IMounted  engines  of 
course  add  to  the  convenience  of  moving  the  engine 
about,  as  they  also  add  to  both  the  cost  and  the  vibra- 
tion. No  stationary  engine  should  be  purchased  for 
this  style  of  mounting  without  first  finding  out  whether 
it  is  available  for  such  a  purpose.  Some  engines  would 
produce  so  much  vibration  that  half  of  their  power 
would  be  destroyed.  Others  may  be  set  without  other 
support  upon  an  empty  barrel,  without  any  display  of 
unsteadiness. 

Where  the  engine  is  mounted  on  wheels,  braces 
should  be  hinged  at  each  end  of  the  trucks  and  forced 
into  place  while  the  engine  is  running  empty.  If  the 
coupling  is  long  the  sills  should  be  very  heavy  or  a 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


173 


jack-screw  set  under  a  cross-piece  near  the  middle. 
Often  the  power  of  the  engine  will  be  increased  at 
least  a  third  by  jacking  up   and  making  a  vibrating 


Fig.    65. — A    Wheeled    Foundation    Needed    for    Tractor    hngi 


foundation   more   rigid.      For   tractor   foundations   see 
chapters  on  the  traction  engine. 

203.  Shelter. — There  is  nothing  about  a  gasoline 
engine  except  the  ignition  system  that  requires  greater 
protection  from  the  weather  than  a  steam  engine  ought 
to  have.  Shelter  pays  with  any  engine  and,  where 
water  is  allowed  free  access  to  the  ignition  system  of 
the  gasoline  engine,  short-circuiting  is  almost  sure  to 
follow.  The  batteries  must  be  kept  dry.  Water  in  the 
coil  or  spark  plug  may  short-circuit  quite  as  thor- 
oughly as  a  misplaced  wire.  Outside  wires  are  sup- 
posed to  be  comparatively  water-proof ;  btit  so  is  a 
safe  fire-proof;  if  the  fire  is  not  too  hot  and  long  con- 
tinued. The  elements  wdll  break  through  any  ordinary 
protection  in  the  course  of  time,  and  the  water-proof- 
ing about  the  average  engine  is  provided  against 
emergencies,  and   not   for  continuous   service. 


174  Tpie  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

Any  engine,  stationary,  portable,  or  tractor,  de- 
serves shelter  and  will  pay  for  it  in  extra  service. 
Nothing  elaborate  is  required;  just  something  that 
will  turn  wind  and  water;  still,  the  double  walls  and 
dead  air  spaces  of  cement  block  structures  present 
arguments  of  economy  if  the  engine  is  to  be  used  much 
in  cold  w^eather.  Once  started,  it  will  furnish  its  own 
heat,  but  not  always  wholly  from  waste  heat,  or  at 
least  some  of  that  spent  in  regulating  temperature 
might  otherwise  have  been  used  in  creating  power. 
Besides,  a  farm  can  make  use  of  the  waste  heat  usu- 
ally in  cold  weather,  if  the  operator  is  ingenious. 

Whatever  kind  of  enclosure  is  used,  it  should  be 
something  that  will  exclude  dust,  and  it  should  be  kept 
clean  within.  Dust  may  do  as  much  harm  to  the  gaso- 
line engine  through  the  intake  pipe  as  bad  air  can 
to  the  human  lungs.  Air  taken  from  an  elevation  is 
best,  away  from  the  gases  of  the  workshop  and  the 
stables ;  but  the  pipe  must  be  of  ample  size  to  insure 
against  excessive  friction.  The  power  of  the  engine 
can  be  almost  destroyed  by  limiting  the  supply  of 
good,  pure  air.  A  long  pipe  no  larger  than  the  in- 
take or  one  with  many  turns  is  almost  certain  to  give 
trouble. 

204.  Fittings  of  the  Engine  Room. — There  is  more 
danger  of  having  too  many  tools  and  supplies  in  the 
engine  room  than  of  not  having  enough,  but  no  room 
can  be  kept  in  order  unless  there  is  special  provi- 
sion for  all  that  has  to  be  kept  there.  Every  engine 
room  should  be  provided  with  closed  shelves  or  cup- 
boards, and  a  few  drawers.  Devote  one  shelf  entirely 
to  the  various  wrenches  needed  about  the  engine,  and 
then  regard  every  wrench  found  out  of  its  regular 
place,  when  not  in  use,  as  so  much  misplaced  matter 
that  should  be  set  back  where  it  belono-s.     Another 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  175 

shelf  may  contain  hammer,  punch,  cold  chisels,  files, 
etc.  This  should  be  locked  and  the  key  mislaid  in 
order  to  give  time  for  a  second  thought  before  apply- 
ing any  of  these  harsher  tools  to  the  engine.  A  shelf- 
ful  of  supplies  will  be  needed  for  the  ignition  sys- 
tem ;  wire  pliers,  an  ammeter,  some  insulated  wire, 
a  coil  of  No.  10  or  12  bare  copper  wire,  a  pair  of  rub- 
ber gloves  or  overshoes,  and  an  extra  cell  or  two  for 
the  battery.  Most  engines  are  sent  out  with  an  ex- 
tra spark  plug.  Keep  this  and  all  other  electrical  sup- 
plies on  its  own  shelf,  and  NOT  in  the  battery  box. 

Frame  the  directions  sent  out  by  the  factory  with 
the  engine  and  hang  on  the  wall  under  glass,  or  else 
with  a  treatment  of  spar  varnish ;  then  do  not  be  too 
proud  to  consult  them  when  in  doubt.  The  man  who 
made  the  engine  knows  some  things  about  it  that  it 
is  no  disgrace  for  the  man  who  runs  it  to  have  to 
learn.  A  drawer  should  also  be  given  to  all  the  printed 
price-lists  of  parts,  or  any  other  literature  pertaining 
to  the  engine.  Even  the  selling  claims  may  help 
determine  what  may  reasonably  be  required  of  it. 
Don't  be  afraid  to  consult  the  engine  company's  lit- 
erature, and  to  study  it  frequently. 

205.  Storing  Oil  in  the  Engine  Room. — One  com- 
partment which  should  be  kept  closed  from  the  en- 
gine room  excepting  when  in  actual  use,  and  venti- 
lated from  outside,  should  be  lined  with  sheet  iron, 
tin  or  zinc.  An  oil-tight  tray  at  the  bottom  should 
be  provided  to  catch  any  drip  and  to  prevent  disagree- 
able oily  bottoms  on  jugs  and  cans,  a  sheet  of  cor- 
rugated roofing,  with  liberal  perforations,  may  be 
fitted  in  just  above  the  tray.  In  this  compartment 
should  be  stored  a  large  can  or  barrel  of  the  best 
gasoline-engnie  cylinder  oil,  and  fitted  near  the  bottom 
with  a  faucet  and  a  funnel  that  is  small  enough  to  con- 


176         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

duct  oil  directly  into  the  oiling  can ;  a  similar  can  of 
good  lubricating  oil,  for  the  bearings,  a  pot  of  best 
tested  grease,  and  one  of  graphite ;  also,  a  small  can 
of  kerosene,  and  of  gasoline  for  cleaning  purposes. 
Keep  this  compartment  as  clean  as  possible,  but  re- 
member that  it  is  not  possible  to  keep  it  as  clean  as 
the  rest  of  the  premises  should  be.  x-\  box  of  drawers 
for  waste  should  be  close  at  hand,  with  a  separate 
metal-lined  tight  drawer,  for  partly  used  waste  and 
oily  cloths.  This  should  be  small,  so  there  will  not  be 
room  for  any  great  accumulation  and  it  should  be 
strictly  fire-proof  against  any  fire  likely  to  occur  in 
its  own  contents. 

206.  The  Work  Bench. — A  small  work  bench  and 
vise  are  convenient,  but  nothing  elaborate  enough  to 
attract  general  farm  repair  work  to  the  engine  room. 
A  limited  supply  of  nails,  bolts,  and  rivets  in  drawers 
is  advisable,  also  a  rack  for  a  few  lengths  of  water 
and  gas  pipe,  with  drawers  below  for  the  couplings. 

207.  The  Engine  Room  Floor. — For  the  stationary 
engine  a  cement  or  wooden  floor  is  better  than  earth, 
because  it  can  be  scrubbed  out  when  necessary. 
Where  a  tractor  is  housed,  grade  up  enough  to  insure 
complete  surface  drainage,  and  use  gravel  or  plank 
for  the  run-way.  A  large  door  at  both  sides  is  a 
great  convenience.  If  a  plank  floor  is  used,  a  pit  for 
standing  while  at  work  under  the  tractor  is  a  great 
convenience  though  not  absolutely  necessary,  as  a 
farm  tractor  does  not  run  close  to  the  ground  like  a 
locomotive. 

208.  Ventilation. — Ventilation  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  farm  engine  house,  even  though  the  air 
supply  for  the  engine  is  drawn  from  outside.  There 
is  always  the  possibility  of  a  gasoline  leak,  and  an 
air-tight  building  is  a  constant  invitation  to  disaster. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  177 

Window  ventilation  should  be  provided,  but  is  not 
enough.  A  three-foot  surface  of  grating  should  be  let 
into  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the  room  and  these  left 
open  constantly  when  the  room  is  not  in  use.  Dur- 
ing the  severest  weather,  when  the  personal  comfort 
of  the  operator  requires  it,  they  may  be  closed  with 
hinged  shutters  inside.  As  the  pump  from  the  main 
gasoline  supply  tank  should  be  located  in  this  room, 
any  leak  which  ever  occurs  in  the  system  is  pretty 
certain  to  find  an  outlet  in  this  room.  Because  of  this, 
as  well  as  to  prevent  tampering  with  the  engine,  it  is 
safest  to  keep  the  engine  room  locked  when  the  oper- 
ator is  not  there. 

209.  The  Engine  Room  Lineshaft. — Where  a  sta- 
tionary engine  and  a  tractor  are  both  used,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  run  a  lineshaft  through  the  engine  room, 
to  which  the  tractor,  when  not  in  use  elsewhere,  can 
be  belted.  During  the  winter  months,  when  much  of 
the  inside  engine  work  of  the  heavier  sort  will  be 
needed,  one  can  then  have  plenty  of  power  and  at 
the  same  time  have  the  advantages  which  the  small 
engine  for  some  purposes  offers  over  a  large  one.  Care 
must  be  taken  in  belting  two  engines  to  one  shaft 
that  the  proportion  between  the  driver  and  the  driven 
wheels  be  figured  out  correctly,  so  that  both  engines 
will  be  driving  the  shaft  at  the  same  number  of  revo- 
lutions per  minute ;  otherwise  there  will  be  a  good  deal 
of  lost  energy  and  unnecessary  strain  of  belt  and  ma- 
chinery. If  the  two  engines  can  be  located  near  op- 
posite ends  of  the  shaft  a  good  deal  of  torsion  strain 
is  saved.  A  better  plan  is  to  use  a  loose  pulley  next  to 
each  driving  member  and  run  the  belt  from  either 
small  engine  or  tractor  free,  driving  from  only  one 
engine. 

210.  The  Mission  of  Paint. — This  is  not  different 


178         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

from  its  mission  around  all  kinds  of  farm  machinery 
which  is  exposed  to  hard  weather  or  usage  condi- 
tions. In  general,  paint  is  intended  to  protect  the  sur- 
face to  which  it  is  applied  from  atmospheric  chemi- 
cal action ;  but  it  has  been  discovered  that  electrical 
action  may  be  even  more  destructive,  and  in  the  paint- 
ing of  metals  it  is  highly  important  to  take  this  into 
consideration.  One  of  the  very  best  paints  for  pro- 
tecting iron  from  rust  is  red  lead,  but  to  use  it  is  to 
turn  a  small  electric  battery  at  work,  tearing  the  iron 
to  pieces  wherever  a  porous  place  or  a  crack  admits 
the  atmosphere  and  moisture.  Theoretically,  a  good 
oil  varnish  is  the  best  possible  covering  for  iron,  if 
the  iron  is  absolutely  clean  when  painted.  The  var- 
nish will  not  adhere  to  rusty,  greasy,  or  w^et  iron,  and 
its  contraction  while  drying  opens  up  minute  cracks 
over  the  imperfectly  coated  spots  and  the  work  of 
destruction  will  continue  unsuspected  under  the 
painted  surface.  In  order  to  render  the  iron  entirely 
waterproof,  the  varnish  must  be  absolutely  dry  be- 
fore exposure  to  the  weather. 

Iron  can  be  cleaned  of  the  grease  and  gum  with 
which  an  engine  is  so  frequently  coated  by  thoroughly 
covering  with  turpentine  for  a  few  hours,  floating  the 
liquid  on  freely  and  frequently  until  the  gum  breaks 
down.  Kerosene  and  gasoline  are  sometimes  used  for 
this  purpose,  but  turpentine  is  better.  Concentrated 
lye  will  sometimes  succeed  where  other  methods  have 
failed,  as  it  unites  with  the  grease  to  form  soap,  and 
that  is  easily  removed.  The  lye  must  afterwards  be 
cleaned  oft'  very  thoroughly  before  painting. 

211.  Painting  the  Muffler. — For  painting  the  muf- 
fler or  pipes  that  are  subject  to  severe  heat,  mix  equal 
parts  by  vv^eight  of  Japan  varnish  and  boiled  linseed  oil. 
For  each  half-pound  of  this  mixture  add  slowly  and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  179 

in  succession,  while  stirring  briskly,  one  and  one-half 
ounces  of  lamp  black,  the  same  of  pure  powdered 
graphite,  and  three-eighths  of  an  ounce  of  powdered 
oxide  of  manganese.  Thin  down  with  turpentine,  and 
paint  at  once.  As  this  paint  dries  very  fast,  the  muf- 
fler must  be  cleaned  before  the  paint  is  mixed.  Stir 
constantly  while  painting,  and  apply  while  the  muf- 
fler is  hot. 

212.  Engine  Room  Abominations. — The  loafer  is 
always  an  abomination  and  especially  when  around 
machinery.  Power  producing  plants  seem  to  be  spe- 
cially attractive  to  this  class  of  people  who  appear  to 
have  so  little  business  of  their  own,  and  the  boiler  or 
engine  room  of  many  a  factory  has  ever  been  the  favor- 
ite loafing  place  of  the  chronic  story-teller.  Avoid 
him  by  making  no  provision  for  his  entertainment. 
The  engine  room  is  a  place  for  business  only.  Chairs, 
boxes,  benches  are  all  out  of  place  there.  There  is 
no  necessity  for  the  operator  to  remain  standing 
longer  at  a  time  than  his  feet  will  sustain  him  and  no 
one  else  has  any  business  there ;  not  as  a  long  time 
fixture. 

213.  And  a  Few  Cautions. — Nor  is  the  chronic 
loafer  the  only  one  who  likes  to  hang  around  engines. 
Often  it  is  young  boys,  who  seem  to  take  to  them  by 
nature  and  who  frequently,  if  the  occasion  presents, 
sometimes  through  mischief,  but  more  through  mis- 
directed curiosity  and  overconfidence,  subject  the  en- 
gine to  so  many  readjustments  that  the  owner  learns 
many  new  things  in  engine  management  before  he  is 
ever  able  to  start  up  again.  The  spirit  of  mechanical 
investigation  ought  to  be  encouraged  in  the  boys  but 
they  should  also  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  all 
engine  management  must  be  under  certain  fixed  rules 
and  that  only  those  who  are  first  familiar  with  the 


i8o         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

rules  know  how  to  apply  them.  There  is  only  one  way 
for  anyone  to  make  this  impression  a  fixed  certainty, 
by  knowing  when  people  not  connected  with  the  farm 
are  around  the  engine,  who  they  are  and  what  they 
are  doing;  that  is  by  taking  the  same  precautions 
which  circumstances  would  make  necessary  in  pro- 
tecting a  new  horse  or  any  other  attractive  purchase. 
214.  Eliminating  the  Danger  Risk. — The  rapidly 
revolving  flywheel  of  the  average  engine  when  vised 
in  exposed  places  introduces  an  element  of  danger  to 
the  onlooker  that  should  be  carefully  guarded  against 
by  making  a  light  frame  of  iron  pipe  or  wood  mem- 
bers to  enclose  the  revolving  member.  If  this  has 
walls  of  poultry  wire  to  enclose  the  mechanism,  this 
precaution  will  prevent  any  projecting  ends  of  cloth- 
ing from  becoming  caught  in  the  flywheel.  The  hot 
exhaust  pipe,  too,  is  often  a  source  of  menace  and 
should  be  covered  with  asbestos  lagging  to  prevent 
inopportune  burns. 


CHAPTER    XL 
THE   FUEL    SUPPLY. 

215.  Gasoline,  and  Its  Nature. — Perhaps  more 
people  are  killed  or  injured  annually  by  gasoline 
through  ignorance  of  its  true  character  than  by  any 
other  industrial  agent;  yet,  properly  handled,  it  is  no 
more  dangerous  than  water.  At  40°  a  lighted  match 
thrown  on  its  surface  would  be  extinguished.  At 
90°  it  might  be ;  it  certainly  would  be  in  liquid  gaso- 
line or  pure  gasoline  vapor. 

216.  Its  True  Value  and  Danger. — Liquid  gasoline 
will  not  ignite  from  flame  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
but  far  less  heat  than  that  from  a  burning  match  will, 
if  favorably  placed,  be  enough  to  convert  it  rapidly 
into  a  gas  which,  mixed  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
is  very  highly  inflammable.  This  tendency  to  vaporize 
so  readily,  in  fact  at  any  temperature  a  few  degrees 
above  freezing,  is  what  makes  gasoline  so  readily 
available  for  engine  use.  As  more  heat  is  applied,  the 
vaporizing  becomes  more  rapid.  An  open  dish  of 
gasoline  in  the  sunlight  where  a  brisk  current  of 
warm  air  passes  over  it  will  evaporate  so  rapidly  as 
to  present  the  appearance  of  boiling.  So  the  current 
of  air  passing  over  its  surface  in  the  carburetor  car- 
ries a  mixture  of  the  readily  formed  gas  along  with  it 
into  the  engine  cylinder. 

217.  Pure  Gasoline  Vapor  Non-inflammable. — By 
itself,  gasoline  vapor  will  not  ignite  ;  it  requires  the 
presence  of  oxygen,  which  it  gets  from  the  air.  About 

181 


i82         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

one  part  of  vapor  to  eight  of  air  makes  the  ideal  mix- 
ture for  thorough  combustion  theoretically,  though,  on 
account  of  atmospheric  impurities,  one  part  to  twelve 
of  air  is  more  nearly  the  proportion  in  actual  prac- 
tice. Only  a  little  variation  either  way  destroys  the 
combustible  properties  of  the  mixture. 

218.  How  Gasoline  Is  Obtained. — Gasoline  is  one 
of  the  most  volatile  products  from  crude  petroleum, 
coming  over  as  one  of  the  first  by-products  in  the 
process  of  distillation.  It  was  formicrly  counted  of 
little  or  no  value,  5c.  per  gal.  being  a  good  price.  No 
mention  is  made  of  it  in  the  1890  Census  report  on 
the  Mineral  Industries  of  the  United  States,  all  the 
distillations  from  petroleum  being  classed  together  as 
naphtha.  Its  rise  in  commercial  importance  may  be 
referred  almost  wholly  to  the  development  of  the  gaso- 
line engine. 

It  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  highly  characteristic  odor, 
the  latter  quality  serving  for  a  highly  fortunate  warn- 
ing as  to  its  presence  in  case  of  a  leak.  Its  specific 
gravity  varies  and  it  is  considerably  lighter  than 
water,  as  it  will  float  on  its  surface  without  mixing. 

219.  Grade. — All  gasoline  used  for  engine  purposes 
had  formerly  to  pass  the  Baume  test  around  70°  to  74°, 
76°  being  the  highest  grade.  Owing  to  the  increased 
demand  and  scarcity,  it  has  been  recently  announced 
that  nothing  better  than  64°  gasoline  will  be  supplied 
through  the  general  market.  This  is  only  two  degrees 
above  the  limit  below  which  the  product  is  no  longer 
called  gasoline,  but  carburetor  construction  has  ad- 
vanced so  much  in  recent  years  that  this  lower  stand- 
ard will  probably  give  no  serious  trouble ;  in  fact, 
not  only  kerosene  but  the  distillates  are  coming  into 
quite  general  engine  use.  Some  of  these  low  grade 
products  stand  higher  in  thermal  value  than  gasoline. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  183 

but  they   are  more  difficult  to  vaporize   and   contain 
more  solid  matter  like  carbon. 

220.  Tests. — Quality  tests  are  less  important  now 
than  when  the  best  of  carburetors  could  only  vaporize 
the  best  of  gasoline ;  still,  there  are  times  when  a  few 
simple  tests  are  convenient. 

The  volatile  qualities  may  be  determined  by  pouring 
a  few  drops  into  the  hand  and  noting  how  quickly  the 
liquid  disappears.  With  74°  gasoline  the  hand  should 
be  dry  in  from  seven  to  ten  seconds.  Sixty-two  de- 
grees gasoline  should  require  from  a  quarter  to  a  half 
minute ;  the  lower  grade  products  even  longer  time. 
Any  unevaporated  residue  remaining  in  the  hand 
means  some  non-volatile  substance,  and  trouble  for 
the  engine.  If  the  residue  is  sticky,  the  gasoline  is 
of  a  grade  unsuitable  for  engine  use,  or  else  it  has 
been  adulterated. 

Water  can  readily  be  discovered  by  pouring  the 
liquid  into  glass.  The  water  will  sink  to  the  bottom 
and  a  sharp  line  of  division  will  be  seen. 

221.  A  Good  Storage  System. — A  good  storage  sys- 
tem without  leaks  is  the  best  insurance  policy  in  the 
handling  of  gasoline.  Without  this,  no  other  sort  of 
insurance  will  avail.  Barrels  and  tanks  stored  care- 
lessly in  barns  for  even  a  day  are  not  to  be  tolerated. 
Gasoline  is  far  more  difficult  than  water  to  confine  and, 
aside  from  the  danger,  a  very  small  leak  may  permit 
the  escape  of  as  much  gasoline  as  an  engine  would 
use.  An  underground  tank  is  best,  where  the  temper- 
ature is  cool  and  unvarying.  Three  pipes  should  con- 
nect with  the  surface ;  the  one  terminating  in  a  gaso- 
line pump ;  a  second  ending  in  a  plate  and  plug  through 
which  the  tank  can  be  refilled,  and  the  third,  a  smaller 
pipe,  for  ventilating  purposes,  should  be  discharged 
in  the  air  several  feet  above  the  ground,  where  the 


i84 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


gasoline  vapors  will  be  diluted  before  reaching  the 
ground,  where  there  might  be  danger  of  ignition. 
Fresh  air  will  enter  the  tank  through  this  pipe  to  re- 
place any  gasoline  drawn  out  but  the  heavier  gaso- 


FiG.  66. — A  Bowser  Gasoline  Storage  System. 


line  vapors  will  not  rise  up  and  escape  from  it  unless 
driven  out  by  internal  pressure.  While  the  tank  is 
being  refilled  these  vapors,  mixed  with  air,  are  forced 
out  and  form  almost  an  ideal  source  for  an  explo- 
sion. ONE  OF  THE  GREATEST  GASOLINE 
DANGERS  IS  FROM  THE  VAPORS  DRIVEN 
OUT  OF  THE  VENT  PIPE  AND  CONTAINED 
IN  THE  PIPE  WHILE  THE  TANK  IS  BEING 
REFILLED.  Fire  and  lights  of  all  kinds  must  AL- 
WAYS be  kept  at  a  distance  while  filling  a  tank. 

222.     A    Good   Tank. — The    tank    should   be    cylin- 
drical.    Copper  is  best  for  the  smaller  sizes,  but  for 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


a  large  tank  steel  does  very  well.  Galvanized  iron 
is  often  used,  but  zinc  coatings  are  sensitive  to  the 
sulphuric  and  other  acids  used  in  breaking  up  the 
petroleum  to  increase  the  yield  of  gasoline.  This 
causes  a  sediment  that  may  at  any  time  close  up  a  feed 
pipe,  and  the  metal  itself  is  sooner  or  later  perforated 
by  that  most  dangerous  of  "pin-hole"  leaks.     These 


'Suction  pipe 
jeadinO  to  pump. 


Double  tapped  bushing__^ 

Suction  pipe    flange 
connection 


Union  e'lbow 


Lock  filler  cap 


-Inner  filler  pipe 
Filler  pipe 
^-niler  pipe  flange 
connection  ^ 


Double'*  brass 
foot' 

Fig.   6j. — Bowser   Gasoline    Storage   Tank   With    Convenient 
Fittings. 


acids  do  not  attack  tin,  and  a  heavily  tinned  tank,  as 
nearly  seamless  as  possible,  makes  a  first  class  recep- 
tacle. 

223.  The  Foundation. — Tanks  should  be  solidly 
placed  on  broad  bearings  and  rigid  foundations.  A 
hundred-gallon  tank  when  full  weighs  something  like 
800  pounds,  and  the  foundations  should  be  planned 
not  only  to  support  this  weight,  but  to  so  distribute  it 
that  not  all  the  strain  will  come  upon  one  portion  of 
the  tank. 

224.  The  Connections. — Flexible  copper  tubing  of 
not  less  than  ^-inch  inside  diameter  is  the  best  con- 


i86         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

nector  with  the  carburetor,  as  it  resists  vibrations  of 
the  engine  better  than  soldered  joints.  Brass  pipe 
with  threaded  fittings  well  shellacked  are  satisfactory, 
while  flared  tube  unions  make  excellent  joints.  Heavy 
lead  pipe  at  least  ^  inch  is  easily  worked,  and  will 
give  good  service  if  not  exposed  to  blows  and 
bruises. 

225.  The  Joints. — Joint  leaks  are  specially  hard  to 
locate  and  produce  leakage  of  gasoline.  Several  firms 
make  a  specialty  of  gasoline  fittings,  and  the  standard 
ground  union  made  by  one  of  these  is  excellent;  also 
one  with  two  flat  surfaces  to  be  drawn  together,  with 
a  paper  gasket  set  in  shellac.  A  well  made  globe  valve 
or  a  ground  pet  cock  answ^ers  the  purpose  nicely,  and 
has  the  advantage  of  having  no  gland  with  packing. 
Some  such  closing  device  should  always  be  placed  be- 
tween the  supply  tank  and  the  carburetor  to  shut  ofT 
the  gasoline  when  the  engine  is  not  running.  To  de- 
pend upon  the  carburetor  alone  is  very  unsafe. 

226.  Guarding  the  Feed  Pipe. — The  bottom  of  the 
filling  pipe  should  be  provided  with  a  good  screen 
strainer,  and  another  should  guard  the  mouth  of  the 
small  feed  pipe  leading  to  the  carburetor.  This  is 
small  in  diameter,  and  a  very  small  scale  or  grain  of 
dirt  in  this  may  be  enough  to  put  the  engine  out  of 
business  and  provide  plenty  of  business  for  the  oper- 
ator. 

227.  Gasoline  Dangers. — Nearly  all  gasoline 
dangers  consist  of  either  leaks  or  carelessness.  With 
a  good  storage  system  properly  installed,  the  careful 
engine  owner  need  have  no  fear.  No  gasoline  engine 
ever  exploded,  and  never  did  a  steam  engine.  Gaso- 
line tanks  and  steam  boilers  sometimes  "burst"  when 
outside  heat  raises  the  internal  pressure  beyond  safety 
limits ;  but  gasoline   itself  is   quite   as   non-explosive 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  187 

in  the  true  sense  as  is  steam.  The  terms  explosion 
stroke,  explosion  chamber,  etc.,  are  all  misnomers 
which  are  justified  only  by  popular  use.  Gasoline 
vapors,  mixed  with  the  proper  amount  of  air,  will  ig- 
nite and  burn  with  almost  violent  eagerness.  A  dry 
pine  stick  will  burn  more  rapidly  than  green  bass- 
wood  ;  neither  the  pine  nor  the  gasoline  becomes  a 
true  explosive  because  the  combustion  is  more  rapid 
than  that  of  something  else  with  which  we  see  fit  to 
compare  it.  There  is  a  vast  chemical  difference  be- 
tween even  the  most  rapid  combustion  and  explo- 
sion ;  hence  gasoline  should  never  be  classed  with  ni- 
tro-glycerine,  dynamite,  gun  cotton,  nitrogen  chlo- 
ride, or  any  of  the  true  explosives. 

228.  Gasoline  Not  Inflammable.- — Neither  is  gaso- 
line inflammable  in  its  pure  state.  A  bucketful  of 
gasoline  dashed  on  a  fire  might  extinguish  it  as  quickly 
as  a  pail  of  water  would ;  still  gasoline  is  not  intended 
for  a  fire  extinguisher,  and  this  property  is  here  re- 
ferred to  in  order  to  emphasize  the  foolishness  of  ap- 
plying it  to  all  things  that  it  might  be  used  for,  but 
for  which  it  was  never  intended.  In  order  to  quench 
a  fire  the  liquid  must  be  present  in  such  excessive 
quantity  that  its  own  temperature  remains  low  until 
the  fire  is  out ;  otherwise  the  heat  would  vaporize  it 
and  convert  it  into  a  gas  which,  mixed  with  air, 
might  become  inflammable  before  the  liquid  had  time 
to  quench  the  flame.  This  same  thing  may  happen  in 
extinguishing  fire  with  water,  the  water  being  decom- 
posed, in  the  presence  of  carbon  (charcoal  and  burned 
wood),  to  carbon  monoxide  or  water  gas.  This  actually 
happened  at  the  great  Chicago  fire ;  but  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  water  is  thus  acted  upon  is  so  high  that 
the  fire  which  reaches  that  temperature  is  very  excep- 
tional. 


i88         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

229.  The  Exact  Danger  Point  in  Gasoline. — Let  us 

imagine  gasoline  and  its  vapors  composed  of  several 
distinct  layers  or  zones  piled  one  upon  another.  The 
bottom  layer  is  the  liquid  itself;  that  will  not  ignite. 
Directly  above  it  is  a  layer  of  pure  gasoline  vapor 
which  contains  no  oxygen,  and  cannot  take  fire.  In 
the  zone  next  higher  a  small  proportion  of  air  is  mixed, 
though  not  nearly  enough  to  support  combustion.  Let 
us  now  begin  at  the  other  side  of  our  pile.  Some- 
where above  this  gasoline  we  know  there  must  be  a 
place  which  the  vapors  have  not  reached.  Here  we 
have  pure  air.  Just  below  is  a  belt  where  there  is  a 
mere  trace  of  gasoline ;  not  enough  to  burn ;  but  the 
next  zone  below  is  a  little  stronger.  Now  if  the  top 
of  our  pile  consists  of  pure  air  and  the  bottom  of  pure 
gasoline,  it  is  evident  that  at  some  place  between  these 
two  belts  is  a  spot  where  the  mixture  is  exactly  right 
to  support  the  most  complete  combustion  of  which  the 
air  and  gas  are  capable.  It  is  also  certain  that  a 
lighted  match  dropped  downward  from  above  must 
reach  this  inflammable  zone  before  it  comes  to  one  so 
dense  in  gasoline  vapor  as  to  extinguish  it.  It  ignites 
that  zone  and  the  disturbance  so  far  mixes  all  those 
nearer  to  it  that  almost  the  entire  vapor  pile  becomes 
in  an  instant  a  mass  of  burning  gas,  the  heat  and  cur- 
rent from  which  almost  as  quickly  convert  the  liquid 
itself  into  seething  flame. 

230.  Small  Danger  in  Tank  from  Natural 
Causes. — L'nless  the  gasoline  is  being  subjected  to 
more  than  normal  heat  or  the  air  and  vapors  above 
it  are  agitated  and  mixed  by  some  mechanical  means, 
the  proportion  of  inflammable  mixture  existing  at  one 
time  in  a  closed  tank  is  very  small.  The  greatest  dan- 
ger consists  of  its  ready  abilit}^  to  mix  up  an  inflam- 
mable proportion  out  of  the  surrounding  material. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


189 


The  air  enclosed  in  a  tank  soon  becomes  saturated, 
and  not  inflammable;  hence  there  is  practically  no 
danger  of  a  flame  from  the  engine  following  the  tube 


Fig. 


58.— Bowser    Underground    Tank 
Attached. 


With    Pleasuring    Pump 


back  to  the  tank.  The  liquid  gasoline  in  it  would  pre- 
vent, or,  if  it  did  not,  there  would  be  nothing  inflam- 
mable in  the  tank. 


igo  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

231.  Rules  for  Safety. — Gasoline  can,  however,  be 
easily  made  dangerous ;  and  a  great  many  people  are 
getting  hurt  through  ignorance  or  carelessness  in  its 
management.  It  is  always  the  free  gasoline  outside 
the  tank  that  causes  trouble ;  that  which  has  leaked 
out  or  been  purposely  drawn  and  exposed  to  the  air. 
Leaks  should  constantly  be  watched  for.  When  found 
they  should  be  remedied  at  once. 

No  poorly  ventilated  room  through  which  gasoline 
pipes  pass  should  ever  be  entered  with  an  open  light 
until  the  air  is  tested  for  gasoline  vapor.  For  most 
people,  the  nose  is  a  partial  test  and  one  which  should 
not  be  disregarded.  Never  bring  a  light  into  a  room 
where  there  is  a  noticeable  smell  of  gasoline. 

Gasoline  vapors  are  much  heavier  than  air,  and  will 
be  strongest  usually  near  the  floor ;  hence  the  room 
should  be  ventilated  from  below. 

The  leak  that  is  searched  for  Avith  a  lighted  match 
will  surely  be  found,  but  the  searcher  may  not  be. 

Gasoline  may  be  evaporated  in  an  open  dish  by 
boiling  without  ignition,  but  as  soon  as  the  heavy 
vapors  settle  down  to  the  flame,  the  room  will  make  a 
first  class  combustion  chamber  for  one  power  impulse 
only. 

One  of  the  commonest  dangers  m  the  handling  of 
gasoline  is  its  use  in  small  quantities  for  cleaning 
purposes,  after  w^hich  it  is  discarded  into  the  sink 
or  slop  bucket,  where  it  will  surely  come  to  the  sur- 
face and  vaporize.  In  time,  enough  of  the  heavy 
vapor  is  likely  to  accumulate  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
room  to  spell  disaster. 

Gasoline  should  never  be  drawn  from  a  common 
spigot  or  poured  from  one  vessel  in  the  presence  of 
flame,  as  the  process  exposes  a  large  surface  to  vapor- 
ization and  the  fumes  come  ofl:*  rapidly.     For  this  rea- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  191 

son  gasoline  should  never  be  drawn  in  the  presence  of 
another  person,  who  is  liable  at  any  instant  to  care- 
lessly light  a  cigar. 

Gasoline,  in  fact,  should  not  be  poured  at  all ;  it  is 
too  wasteful.  If  drawn  from  a  barrel,  lower  a  length 
of  rubber  hose  into  the  barrel,  then  pinch  the  end 
tightly  between  the  fingers  and  draw  out  until  the 
outer  end  of  the  hose  reaches  below  the  level  of  gaso- 
line ;  then  release  the  end  and  siphon  out  the  desired 
quantity. 

232.  Two  Fundamental  Rules. — ist.  Avoid  evapo- 
ration as  much  as  possible  by  keeping  the  gasoline  in 
a  cool  place  and  away  from  any  but  saturated  air. 

2nd.  See  that  all  vapor  or  air  space  in  the  storage 
system  is  kept  constantly  at  the  saturation  stage. 
This  can  always  be  assured  by  keeping  all  tanks,  pipes 
and  joints  constantly  tight  and  a  supply  of  liquid  gaso- 
line within  them. 

233.  Common  Risks  and  Errors. — Do  not  expect  to 
locate  a  small  leak  by  dripping  liquid,  or  even  by  mois- 
ture around  it.  In  such  quantities  it  is  the  nature  of 
gasoline  to  vaporize  and  become  invisible  the  moment 
the  air  is  reached.  .^ 

Do  not  use  a  dirty  stick  to  measure  the  depth  of 
the  gasoline  in  the  tank.  It  may  result  in  a  clogged 
pipe.  Keep  a  clean  rod  in  a  clean  place  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  have  the  scale  in  inches  and  fractions 
marked  at  its  lower  end.  Some  lower  a  glass  tube, 
open  at  both  ends,  then  close  the  upper  end  with  the 
finger  and  draw  out  and  note  the  height  of  gasoline  in 
the  tube. 

Do  not  use  the  same  funnel  for  gasoline,  lubricating 
oil,  and  kerosene.  These  are  sometimes  fed  to  the  en- 
gine in  mixture,  but  each  funnel  develops  dirt  enough 
of  its  own. 


192         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

Rubber  tubing  is  not  suitable  for  piping  gasoline, 
kerosene  or  lubricating  oil.  The  first  dissolves  it 
readily,  while  oil  and  the  fatty  remnants  of  oil  left  be- 
hind when  kerosene  evaporates  soon  rot  the  life  out  of 
rubber.  Specially  treated  hose  is  furnished  for  such 
purposes. 

All  gasoline  joints  should  be  unfailingly  made  up  in 
shellac.  A  single  joint  that  is  merely  "good  enough  to 
answer"  may  defeat  all  the  other  precautions  and  ren- 
der them  care  and  money  thrown  away. 

Unfiltered  gasoline  is  very  likely  to  cause  a  trouble- 
some interview  with  the  intake  pipe  or  carburetor 
sooner  or  later. 

Never  forget  that  the  greatest  danger  about  a  gaso- 
line tank  is  the  process  of  filling  it;  while  the  satu- 
rated air  is  being  displaced  by  the  inrushing  liquid  and 
forced  into  the  open  air  to  be  diluted  to  the  most  com- 
bustible point.  Then  the  cigar-lighter  gets  in  his 
deadliest  work. 

Wire  screen  strainers  alone  are  not  enough  protec- 
tion from  dirt.  The  needle  valve  is  small  and  easily 
clogged.  A  chamois  skin  at  some  convenient  part  of 
the  system  not  t©o  remote  from  the  carburetor  is  a 
great  trouble  saver. 

Do  not  attempt  to  solder  a  spot  in  a  galvanized 
tank  that  has  rusted  through.  Occasionally  it  pays, 
but  it  is  usually  a  waste  of  time. 

The  gasoline  that  has  stood  for  some  time  in  the 
carburetor  of  an  idle  engine  may  lose  its  more  vola- 
tile elements  and  become  useless  as  an  engine 
starter.  Better  drain  the  carburetor  and  renew  the 
supply. 

Make  it  a  rule  never  to  draw  gasoline  at  night  under 
conditions  where  a  light  from  a  naked  flame  is  neces- 
sary.    The   occasional   exception   may  not  prove  dis- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  193 

astrous,  but  it  will  soon  become  the  rule  and  serious 
consequences  are  sure  to  follow — some  time. 

A  bottle  of  mushy  yellow  shellac  and  a  few  strips 
of  cloth  should  be  in  every  gasoline  engine  repair 
chest.  This  will  repair  a  leaky  union  temporarily 
without   shutting   down   the   engine   until    the   run    is 


Fig,  69. — Simple  Gasoline  Tank  Gauge. 


finished.  Som.etimes,  when  this  fails,  relief  may  be 
obtained  by  shutting  off  the  gasoline,  unscrewing  the 
union,  and  making  up  the  joint  in  soap  or  graphite. 

Remember  always  that,  aside  from  the  danger,  even 
a  small  leak  may  consume  gasoline  faster  than  the 
engine  does. 

234.  Gasoline  Fires;  How  to  Handle  Them. — The 
most  important  thing  to  do  with  a  gasoline  fire  is  to 
prevent  it,  and  the  next  thing  is  to  smother  it  out  by 
cutting  off  the  air  supply,  or  the  gasoline.  Fighting 
with  water  is  time  worse  than  wasted ;  it  spreads  the 
gasoline  over  a  larger  surface  and  increases  the  area 
of  evaporation.  Sand  and  sawdust  are  two  of  the 
very  best  extinguishers,  though  sand  should  not  be 
used  too  near  the  engine,  as  grains  of  it  in  the  cyl- 
inder may  cut  and  ruin  it.  A  few  buckets  of  saw- 
dust near  a  gasoline  engine  or  storage  system  should 


194         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

be  as  much  a  part  of  the  equipment  as  buckets  of 
water  are  around  the  furnace  of  steam  boilers.  It  not 
only  smothers  but  absorbs  the  liquid  and  prevents  its 
spreading,  while  a  few  grains  drawn  into  the  engine 
will  not  do  such  serious  damage. 

If  sawdust  is  not  available,  old  carpets,  blankets, 
binder  canvas,  stack  covers,  anything  to  shut  out  the 
air,  should  be  resorted  to.  Out  of  doors,  a  few  shovels- 
ful  of  dirt  may  be  sufficient  and  most  readily  obtain- 
able. This  has  the  same  objection  around  the  engine 
that  sand  has. 

Chemical  fire  extinguishers  are  many  of  them  all 
right.  One  of  the  very  best  may  be  made  by  mixing 
common  salt  and  sal-ammoniac  in  equal  parts ;  then  add 
to  the  mixture  two-thirds  of  its  bulk  of  bicarbonate  of 
soda.  Mix  and  screen  thoroughly;  then  bottle  for 
use,  and  keep  in  stock  for  an  emergency.  A  little  of 
this  scattered  over  a  gasoline  fire  will  conquer  it 
quickly. 

235.  Kerosene:  Its  Advantages  and  Drawbacks.— 
In  thermal  heat  value  kerosene  stands  higher  than 
gasoline  in  the  proportion  of  about  22  to  18. 

Nearly  every  one  is  familiar  with  kerosene  and  its 
treatment,  while  gasoline  is  with  many  people  a  series 
of  experiments. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  gasoline  is  only  obtain- 
able at  certain  stations,  while  kerosene  can  be  ob- 
tained at  any  corner  grocery.  If  the  fuel  supply  runs 
out  before  a  certain  job  is  done,  a  few  gallons  of 
kerosene  can  be  brought  in  the  farm  buggy,  enough  to 
finish  the  work  without  having  to  shut  down. 

If  a  few  gallons  happen  to  remain  over  at  the  end 
of  the  season  the  housewife  can  burn  it  in  her  lamps. 
It  does  not  have  to  be  carried  over  till  another  year. 
This  argument  is  hardly  valid,  however,  in  the  case  of 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  195 

small  engines,  as  they  are  likely  to  be  in  daily  use  the 
year  around. 

Insurance  companies  are  more  generally  educated 
up  to  the  point  of  tolerance  in  the  use  of  kerosene,  and 
are  not  so  strict  in  their  ruling  as  they  are  with  gaso- 
line. Perhaps  they  realize  that  people  know  better 
how  to  handle  it. 

Various  experiments  have  proven  that  the  same 
amount  of  work  can  be  done  cheaper  with  kerosene 
than  with  gasoline,  the  difference  being  due  both  to 
the  lower  price  for  kerosene  and  its  superior  thermal 
efficiency. 

Kerosene  is  somewhat  safer  to  handle,  both  because 
it  is  less  volatile  and  because  it  is  more  generally 
understood.  Under  ordinary  conditions  if  it  happens 
to  escape  from  the  tubes  within  which  it  is  supposed 
to  be  confined  in  the  form  of  a  liquid  it  remains  a 
liquid.  This  superior  stability,  however,  is  also  one 
of  its  chief  drawbacks. 

236.  Objections  to  Kerosene.— It  is  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  vaporize  in  the  engine  than  gasoline ;  in  fact, 
artificial  heat  has  often  to  be  applied  to  jt  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  run  in  order  to  start  at  all.  When  once 
started  the  engine  itself  supplies  the  heat. 

Kerosene  is  not  so  fully  consumed  in  the  process  of 
combustion  as  gasoline,  and  there  is  a  much  heavier 
deposit  of  carbon  on  the  valves  and  in  the  cylinder. 
The  piston  rings  must  be  cleaned  oftener,  and 
there  is  greater  trouble  with  pre-ignition  and  leaky 
valves. 

Kerosene  engines  are  apt  to  be  offensive  to  the  sense 
of  smell.  Not  only  that,  when  used  in  the  stable  or 
dairy,  the  milk  has  to  be  much  more  closely  guarded 
or  its  products  are  likely  to  taint. 

Kerosene   ensfines   are   more   liable   to   smoke   than 


196         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

gasoline,  and  are  less  available  for  interior  work,  espe- 
cially in  laundries,  kitchens,  milk-houses,  etc. 


Fig.  70.— Typical   10  H.  P.  Kerosene  Engine. 

237.  Which  Is  Best.— For  tractors  and  out-of-door 
engines  kerosene  and  the  distillates  are  specially  avail- 
able on  account  of  their  cheapness  and  superior  power, 
but  for  small  units  and  for  in-door  work  the  gasoline 
engine  is  probably  enough  better  to  pay  the  difference 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  197 

in   the   cost   of  fuel.     Gasoline,   too,   is  best   for  high 
speed  engines,  as  kerosene  is  much  slower  burnnig. 

238.  Changing  for  Kerosene  from  Gasoline.— Al- 
most any  good  gasoline  engine  can  be  used  for  kero- 
sene by  a  few  minor  changes.  Two  supply  tanks  are 
needed,  a  large  one  for  the  kerosene  and  a  small  one 
for  gasoline."  In  starting  the  engine  the  gasoline 
should  be  turned  on  first  until  the  iron  is  well  warmed 
up;  then  the  gasoline  can  be  switched  off  and  kero- 
sene turned  on.  A  few  minutes  before  closing  down 
at  night  it  is  well  to  change  back  to  gasoline ;  then  the 
carburetor  will  be  charged  with  gasoline  in  the  morn- 
ing for  starting.  Short  shut-downs  in  the  course  of 
a  run  do  not  usually  require  this  change,  as  the  en- 
gine, once  hot,  remains  hot  enough  for  a  reasonable 
Time  to  vaporize  the  kerosene.  If  at  any  time  it  will 
not  start,  the  carburetor  should  be  drained  and  then 
primed  with  gasoline. 

A  good  spark  and  good  compression  are  essential 
for  the  use  of  kerosene.    Without  these  it  is  generally 
a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  the  change.     Kerosene  is 
more   suitable   for   constant   than   for   variable   loads. 
Valves  and  connections  must  be  kept  tight,  and  rings 
and  sparker  clean.     Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  pipe 
hot  air  from  some  part  of  the  engine  across  the  car- 
buretor,  or    a   hot   water   jacket    can   be   used.     The 
spark  must  not  be  advanced  too  much  or  pre-ignition 
troubles  are  likely  to  come  up.    Some  engine  operators 
favor  mixing  a  quart  of  gasoline  with  each  five  gallons 
of  kerosene,  while  others  operate  successfully  on  kero- 
sene alone.    Under  favorable  conditions  a  saving  of  as 
much  as  forty  per  cent,  has  been  reported  by  changing 
from   gasoline   to   kerosene,   and  with   an   increase   of 

power. 

239.     Distillate.— Distillate,   which   is   really   a   low 


198         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

grade  of  kerosene  in  which  more  traces  of  the  heavier 
oils  remain,  can  be  used  in  most  gasoline  engines  in 
the  same  way  kerosene  can,  and,  like  the  latter    it  is 
more  desirable  for  tractors  and  heavy  engines  of  low 
speed  than  for  the  more  speedy  affairs  for  indoor  work 
Some  of  the  advantages  which  kerosene  presents  are 
not  so  marked,  while  others  are  more  so.     Also,  the 
mam   objections  to   kerosene  appear   in   distillates   in 
an  aggravated  form;  still  they  are  valuable  in  their 
place,  when  properly  arranged  for,  and  are  among  the 
very  cheapest  engine  fuels. 
^        240.     Alcohol.— This  is  the  great  unfulfilled  promise 
to  the  mdustrial  world,  of  the  internal  combustion  en- 
gme;  mdeed,  it  was  regarded  as  so  important  that  a 
few  years  ago  special  revenue  laws  were  enacted  in 
Its   favor,   and   it   was   confidently   expected   that   de- 
natured alcohol  would  revolutionize  the  small  power 
industries. 

241.     Its  Advantages.— In  many  respects  alcohol  is 
specially  fitted  for  this  work.     It  is  far  cleaner  and 
less  odorous  than  gasoline,  and  greater  power  is  ob- 
tained from  it  for  a  given  weight  of  engine.    A  gaso- 
line engine  operating  under  ordinary  compression  of 
about  70  pounds  will  increase  in  power  about  10  per 
cent,   when   run    on   alcohol;   then   by   increasing   the 
compression  to   180  or   190  pounds,  which  could  not 
be  done  with   gasoline,   the  power  will   be   nearly  30 
per  cent,  greater.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in  order 
to  run  on  alcohol  economically  a  much  higher  com- 
pression pressure  should  be  provided  for  than  either 
kerosene  or  gasoline  would  permit. 

242.  Some  Peculiarities  of  Alcohol.— Alcohol  com- 
bustion is  slower  than  gasoline,  and  less  noisy.  The 
heat  from  the  flame  goes  up  instead  of  spreading  out, 
and  a   fire   caused   by  it  spreads   less   rapidly  and  is 


The  Gasoline  Iingine  on  the  Farm  199 

readily  extinguished  by  water,  with  which  it  mixes 
greedily.  All  alcohol  contains  some  water;  and  its 
presence  in  the  engine  in  the  form  of  steam  sometimes 
has  to  be  considered.  It  has  also  a  troublesome  habit 
of  corroding  metals  and  of  changing  lubricating  oils 
to  gummy  substances.  It  is  more  constant  in  its  com- 
position than  gasoline  in  its  action  and  will  stand  over- 
loading better.  It  will  operate  the  engine,  too,  when 
diluted  with  water  as  much  as  50  per  cent. 

243.  Its  Fatal  Weakness. — So  far  its  fatal  weak- 
ness has  been  the  prohibitive  price  and  its  low  thermal 
value.  In  heat  units  it  is  much  lower  than  gasoline, 
the  relation  standing  about  in  the  proportion  of  2  to 
3,  while  the  proportional  price  is  more  than  reversed. 

244.  The  Engine  User's  Dream. — It  has  been  an 
unrealized  dream  of  power  users  that  alcohol  will 
some  time  be  produced  on  the  farm  or  in  each  farming 
community  from  farm  refuse,  like  small  potatoes,  etc., 
at  a  low  cost.  It  would  then  be  almost  an  ideal  and 
inexpensive  source  of  power,  of  local  production  and 
not  subject  to  excessive  tax  of  transportation.  The 
power,  too,  that  could  utilize  the  present  waste  of  the 
farm  and  be  independent  for  its  source  from  any  other 
industry  must  of  itself,  if  ever  realized,  be  of  in- 
estimable advantage.  Thus  far,  however,  there  has 
been  little  progress  made  in  a  realization  of  this 
dream,  and  at  its  present  prices  alcohol  as  an  engine 
fuel  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  promising  possibility  of 
the  future. 

245.  Notes  on  Fuels. — In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
gasoline  is  much  more  costly  now  than  it  was  a  few 
years  ago  its  use  as  an  engine  fuel  is  less  so  because 
of  greater  carburetor  and  general  engine  efficiency. 

American  oils  furnish  on  an  average  about  54  per 
cent,  of  kerosene  and  only  6  to  8  per  cent,  of  gasoline. 


200  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

Gasoline  cannot  be  ignited  by  overheating  a  tank, 
but  it  can  be  made  to  vaporize  until  the  internal  pres- 
sure may  burst  the  tank. 

The  only  dangerous  gasoline  is  free  gasoline,  and 
the  entire  danger  from  operating  the  gasoline  engine 
may  be  said  to  consist  of  failure  to  confine  the  fuel. 
The  difiference  in  the  cost  of  a  good  and  a  poor  job  in 
the  mstallation  of  the  storage  system  should  not  be 
considered. 

It  is  the  weak  point  of  the  storage  svstem  that  the 
gasoline  finds.  Those  parts  that  are  strong  enough 
are  never  in  evidence. 

Any  float-controlled  valve  may  become  clogged  with 
dirt  and  fail  to  seat  properly.  This  means  a  leak  as 
surely  as  a  rusted  pipe. 

White  or  red  lead  is  not  suitable  for  making  up  a 
gasoline  joint.  The  gasoline  attacks  and  cuts  them 
out.  Litharge  and  glycerine  mixed  to  a  thick  paste 
are  excellent— as  good  as  shellac. 

Alcohol  dissolves  shellac  and  soon  attacks  the  usual 
float  found  in  the  ordinary  carburetor,  permitting  it  to 
become  fuel-soaked  and  unreliable. 

One  pint  of  gasoline  or  i.i  pints  of  kerosene  or  1.4 
pints  of  alcohol  should  produce  on  an  average  one 
horse  power  per  hour.  At  that  rate,  with  gasoline  at 
14  centf  per  gallon,  alcohol  should  cost  10  cents,  and 
kerosene  13  cents;  or,  with  alcohol  at  30  cents,  gaso- 
line at  40  cents  would  still  be  as  cheap. 

IMany  accidents  arise  from  the  storage  of  gasoline 
and  kerosene  in  small  quantities  in  similar  cans.  To 
prevent  this  paint  all  gasoline  receptacles  on  the  out- 
side a  bright  red.  In  some  states  this  precaution  is 
required  by  law,  as  it  should  be  in  all  by  common 
sense. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
LUBRICATION. 

246.  Importance. — If  intelligent  lubrication  could 
become  the  gasoline  engine  owner's  politics  it  would 
be  well  for  him  to  be  in  the  throes  of  a  great  national 
campaign  continuously.  More  machinery  is  sacrificed 
each  year  to  the  god  of  friction  than  to  all  other  legiti- 
mate causes ;  and  the  shame  of  it  is  that  much  of  this 
is  easily  prevented. 

Not  only  does  carelessness  in  lubrication  destroy 
machinery,  it  seriously  diminishes  the  amount  of 
energy  available  in  useful  w^ork  by  introducing  a  great 
amount  of  needless  and  unproductive  work.  The  ef- 
ficiency of  any  power  may  be  reduced  as  much  as  50 
per  cent,  through  lack  of  proper  attention  at  the  bear- 
ings. The  fire  risk  is  also  greatly  increased  by  it. 
Destructive  fires  are  so  often  started  by  hot  boxes 
that  the  rate  of  insurance  upon  any  building  contain- 
ing machinery  is  considerably  higher  than  normal. 

247.  Purpose. — An  ordinary  cast  iron  cylinder 
shows  to  the  naked  eye  a  rough  surface  covered  with 
sand-holes  and  foundry  defects.  It  is  easy  to  see  that 
such  a  bearing  w^ould  not  be  permissible  in  even  the 
slowest  of  moving  machinery.  Steel  and  some  other 
metals  may  present  a  smoother  surface,  but  we  would 
not  think  of  using  any  of  these  in  journal  boxings 
until  the  surface  was  worked  to  a  true  circle  and  then 
polished  until  all  of  these  defects  which  we  readily 
see  have  been  removed. 

201 


202         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

The  most  highly  polished  metal  surface  known  to 
mechanics  will,  under  a  powerful  microscope,  present 
an  appearance  not  unlike  that  which  the  unfinished 
iron  gave   to   the  naked   eye    (Fig.   71),   and  friction 


Fig.  71.— Polished  Steel  Rod  Looks  Rough  If  Magnified  Greatly, 
works  with  microscopic  exactness.  The  hardest  steel 
is  not  incompressible  either;  and,  unless  we  are  will- 
ing to  furnish  the  extra  power  energy  to  tear  these 
multitudinous  inequalities  of  surface  apart  and  grind 
them  down  by  main  force,  we  must  render  the  shaft 
more  smooth. 

248.  How  Lubricants  Work. — Some  lubricants  ac- 
complish their  mission  almost  wholly  by  filling  up 
these  minute  holes  and  inequalities,  and  then,  under 
the  pressure,  forming  a  new  surface  of  their  own  com- 
posed of  the  little  globules  of  oil  pressed  and  ground 
into  each  other  until  they  form  a  smooth,  hard  glaze. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  203 

Others  do  their  work  more  by  dividing  into  Httle 
elastic  balls  which  cover  the  bearing  surface  con- 
stantly with  self-adjusting  ball-bearings,  interspersed 
with  cushions  of  imprisoned  air.  Either  of  these  ef- 
fects prevents  the  two  metal  surfaces  from  ever  com- 
ing together  and,  under  perfect  lubrication,  nearly  all 
of  the  wear  is  on  the  lubricating  surface  itself.  Of 
course,  in  practice,  lubrication  is  never  continuously 
complete ;  and,  even  if  it  were,  some  friction  would 
result  between  the  metal  and  the  oil ;  but  the  latter, 
being  the  more  yielding,  would  bear  the  brunt  of  the 
wear. 

249.  What  a  Lubricant  Is. — Practically  any  liquid 
is  a  lubricant,  since  all  liquids  are  composed  of  easily 
moving  molecules  or  globules  which  readily  adjust 
themselves  to  any  surface.  Not  all  liquids  can  be 
made  to  stay  in  place,  nor  have  all  of  them  strength  or 
body  enough  to  hold  a  heavy  shaft  clear  of  its  bear- 
ings. In  order  to  resist  the  tendency  of  the  scraping 
metal  to  tear  the  lubricating  film  apart  and  let  the 
metals  come  together,  the  liquid  globules  must  have  a 
strong  inclination  to  stick  together;  that  is,  the  liquid 
must  have  good  cohesive  properties.  It  must  also 
adhere  well  to  the  metal  surface  it  is  applied  to,  or 
the  moving  shaft  will  shove  it  aside ;  in  other  words, 
it  must  have  good  adhesive  powers. 

250.  Viscosity. — These  two  properties  determine 
the  viscosity  or  body  of  a  lubricating  agent,  and  in  a 
great  measure  fix  its  lubricating  value.  Many  liquids 
possess  one  of  these  qualities  without  the  other. 
Water  adheres  well  to  the  metal  but  does  not  stick 
together  with  enough  persistence  to  prevent  the  metal 
surfaces  from  shoving  it  aside.  Mercury  is  excep- 
tionally cohesive  but  has  not  sufficient  adhesion  to 
hold  it  to  its  work  against  the  other  metals.      Neither 


204         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

of   these   two   fluids   will   do   as   a   lubricant   because 
neither  of  them  is  truly  viscous. 

251.  Fluidity.— Fluidity  is  just  the  opposite  of 
viscosity.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  friction  be- 
tween all  moving  things  which  are  in  contact,  not 
excepting  the  separate  particles  in  the  oil  itself;  and 
this  internal  friction  or  tendency  to  cling  together  is 
greater  in  the  kinds  of  liquids  which  are  less  fluid. 
This  stationary  tendency  in  an  oil  increases  its  re- 
sistance to  all  motion,  including  that  of  the  shaft,  and 
after  the  point  is  reached  where  the  oil  has  sufficient 
body  to  sustain  the  required  load,  any  addition  to  the 
resistance  is  only  adding  to  the  friction  between  the 
oil  and  shaft  v/ithout  serving  any  useful  purpose. 

252.  The  Flash  Point — In  gasoline  engine  lubri- 
cation the  flash  point  and  fire  test  of  the  oil  are  of 
very  great  importance.  The  first  refers  to  the  lowest 
degree  of  temperature  at  which  the  vapors  from  the 
oil  will  flash  into  momentary  flame  and  then  die  out; 
the  second  to  that  point  at  which  the  vapor  will  con- 
tinue to  form  and  burn  constantly.  As  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  engine  cylinder  is  so  high,  it  is  necessary 
that  a  good  cylinder  oil  have  a  very  high  test  in  both 
of  these,  else  it  would  be  ignited  and  consumed  be- 
fore having  a  chance  to  do  its  work.  A  fire  test  of 
400°  F.,  or  more  than  the  working  temperature  of  the 
cylinder,  is  necessary,  and  some  gas  engine  men  insist 
on  as  high  as  500°  or  even  600°. 

253.  The  Cold  Test.— The  cold  test  is  of  less  im- 
portance;  still  it  should  be  considered  where  ma- 
chinery is  to  be  run  at  a  low  temperature,  as  oil  which 
is  so  nearly  congealed  that  it  will  not  follow  in  its 
proper  channels  is  of  no  use  as  a  lubricant.  The 
usually  accepted  cold  test  for  gasoline  engine  oils  is 
around  20°  Fahr. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  205 

254.  Carbon. — In  the  cylinder  oil  the  per  cent,  of 
carbon  is  of  very  great  importance,  since  each  impulse 
of  the  engine  consumes  all  the  inflammable  parts  of 
the  oil  in  the  cylinder  and  leaves  the  free  carbon  and 
other  unconsumed  ingredients  behind  to  gum  the  pis- 
ton and  rings  with  their  troublesome  deposits. 

255.  Gums  and  Acids. — Gums  and  acids,  though 
present  in  most  oils,  are  a  detriment  for  obvious  rea- 
sons, and  an  oil  should  be  selected  which  is  as  free 
from  them  as  possible.  Acids,  of  course,  attack  the 
surface  of  the  metal  the  oil  is  intended  to  protect  and 
lubricate,  while  gum  in  cylinder  oil  is  not  to  be  toler- 
ated, as  it  is  constantly  depositing  a  few  more  engine 
troubles  in  the  cylinder. 

256.  Variety  in  Lubricants  Needed. — No  one  kind 
of  oil  is  best  for  all  machines  or  all  parts  of  the  same 
machine.  A  thick  lubricating  film  of  good  resisting 
body  is  needed  under  the  heavily  loaded  shaft,  and  for 
such  heavy  machinery  its  greater  internal  friction  is 
of  no  importance,  the  weight  and  momentum  of  the 
machine  being  enough  to  overcome  the  extra  resist- 
ance without  being  retarded.  For  the  light  spindle  of 
high  speed  such  heavy  oil  Avould  be  unnecessary,  and 
its  retarding  tendency  would  be  serious.  A  drop  of 
thick  cylinder  oil  would  put  a  watch  out  of  commis- 
sion, while  a  gallon  of  typewriter  oil  would  be  worth 
about  as  much  as  the  same  quantity  of  w^ater  to  lubri- 
cate the  line-shaft  of  an  ocean  steamer  or  the  drive 
wheels  of  a  locomotive.  Friction  between  certain 
kinds  of  metal,  too,  it  has  been  proven,  is  best  re- 
duced by  certain  oils,  wdiile  the  temperature  at  which 
the  machinery  works  is  an  important  matter.  In 
comparison  tests  of  good  oils  of  seemingly  similar 
nature  it  has  sometimes  been  found  that  three-fourths 
of  the  oil  required  of  one  brand  will  accomplish  more 


2o6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

work  with  the  same  machine  and  load  than  some  other 
brand  would  require,  and  that  there  would  be  a  ma- 
terial saving  in  power  and  repair  bills  at  the  same 
time. 

257.  Gasoline  Engine  Cylinder  Oil. — This  is  per- 
haps the  severest  known  test  ever  placed  upon  a  lubri- 
cant of  any  kind.  Ordinary  cylinder  oil  which  is  satis- 
factory in  the  moist  air  of  the  steam  engine  cylinder, 
where  the  temperature  rarely  gets  above  400°,  will  not 
answer  at  all  in  the  presence  of  this  dry  heat  of  1,500° 
or  more  at  the  moment  of  firing,  and  a  continuous 
wall  temperature  of  350°  or  more.  The  oil  would  be 
burned  up  at  once  and  the  released  carbon,  uniting  in 
the  presence  of  the  heat  with  the  oxygen  in  the  cyl- 
inder, not  only  chokes  the  engine  up  with  dirt  but,  by 
removing  some  of  the  oxygen,  interferes  seriously  with 
the  firing  of  the  charge. 

Gasoline  engine  cylinder  oil  must  have  enough  vis- 
cosity or  adhesive  stickiness  to  carry  its  load  well  at 
these  high  temperatures  and  still  be  free  from  gum. 
It  must  have  an  exceptionally  high  fire  test  in  order 
to  resist  consumption  until  after  its  work  is  done; 
then  it  must  suffer  as  near  complete  consumption  as 
may  be,  in  order  that  but  little  deposit  from  it  remains 
to  trouble  the  cylinder.  It  should  have  a  good  cold 
test  also,  and  it  must  be  free  from  the  various  adulter- 
ants which  are  sometimes  used  to  make  cheap  oil  re- 
semble high  grade  cylinder  oil  in  its  "handling" 
qualities. 

Cheap  cylinder  oil  should  be  avoided,  because  a 
good  oil  cannot  be  made  cheaply.  It  requires  many 
filterings  until  practically  all  of  the  impurities  are 
taken  out  of  it.  It  is  then  nearly  colorless,  like 
glycerine,  instead  of  the  dark  green  or  amber  fre- 
quently seen  on  the  market ;  but  color  alone  does  not 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  207 

prove  the  quality.  Oil  can  be  bleached  by  certain 
acids  until  it  resembles  the  highly  filtered  oils ;  then 
it  contains,  in  addition  to  the  objectionable  carbon,  a 
certain  amount  of  free  acid  to  attack  and  roughen  the 
cylinder  walls.  Soap,  alumina,  soda,  lime,  etc.,  are 
often  present  in  cheap  oils.  Their  uses  are  many  to 
the  oil  vendor.  For  the  engine  owner  they  accom- 
plish one  result  only — trouble. 

258.  Bearings  and  Their  Requirements. — The 
weight  and  strain  upon  a  bearing  and  the  speed  at 
which  the  shaft  is  run  in  the  main  determine  the  na- 
ture of  the  best  lubricant  for  most  parts  of  ordinary 
machinery,  including  the  gasoline  engine,  though  the 
method  used  in  its  application  may  have  much  to  do 
with  it.  The  viscosity  should  be  sufficient  to  carry 
the  load  and  not  much  more.  The  oil  should  be  fluid 
enough  to  freely  enter  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the 
boxing  channels,  and  the  flow  should  be  ready  enough 
to  insure  a  constant  supply.  The  fluidity  of  the  oil 
is  specially  important  when  some  parts  of  the  bear- 
ings are  difficult  of  access  or  when  the  splash  system 
of  oiling  is  made  use  of.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
places  where  a  thicker  oil,  even  grease,  is  better  for 
ordinary  journals ;  for  instance,  near  an  emery  wheel, 
where  bits  of  metal  or  grit  are  likely  to  abound.  Its 
thicker  body  tends  to  protect  the  revolving  surface 
from  abrasure  and  to  work  the  foreign  particles  out- 
side the  journals.  Where  drip  from  the  ends  of  the 
axles  is  specially  objectionable,  too,  the  heavier  oils 
and  greases  are  more  appropriate. 

259.  The  Specific  Purpose. — About  the  only  way 
for  the  machine  man  to  really  know  what  oil  is  best 
for  any  specific  purpose  is  iov  him  to  understand  the 
nature  of  the  dift'erent  oils  and  then  study  the  require- 
ments of  his  machine,  and  select  that  oil  best  adapted 


3o8         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

to  supplying  them.  To  know  the  machine  alone  is 
not  enough.  There  are  some  oils  that  might  be  spe- 
cially valuable  under  certain  conditions,  which  possess 
some  peculiarity  that  under  other  conditions  would 
render  them  valueless  in  the  same  machine.  Tallow 
and  lard  oil,  for  instance,  so  largely  used  on  farm  ma- 
chinery, have  practically  no  lubricating  value  where 
there  is  much  load  if  the  temperature  gets  above  ioo°, 
because  their  viscosity  is  then  destroyed,  and  they 
have  not  sufficient  body  to  hold  the  two  metals  apart. 
Beef  suet,  a  favorite  with  some,  will  not  begin  to  feed 
down  until  the  boxes  have  become  hot  enough  to  be 
injured.  This  is  almost  a  fatal  weakness  in  its  lubri- 
cating properties,  it  being  the  purpose  of  every  good 
machinist  to  prevent  hot  boxes  rather  than  to  provide 
them  for  the  purpose  of  melting  his  grease.  It  is 
always  well  when  selecting  oil  to  consider  the  tem- 
perature of  the  place,  and  to  remember  that  high  tem- 
peratures readily  decompose  the  animal  oils  and  render 
them  rancid. 

260.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Oils. — Formerly  the 
only  oils  in  common  use  as  lubricants  were  of  animal 
or  vegetable  origin.  This  was  largely  due  to  their 
cheapness  and  greater  supply.  Animal  oils  are  more 
oily,  however,  than  mineral,  and  they  mix  better  Avith 
moisture.  For  the  latter  reason  they  are  more  desir- 
able around  steam  than  gasoline  engines,  though  even 
for  steam  they  are  not  ideal.  As  a  class  they  are  more 
oily  than  the  hydrocarbons  or  mineral  oils,  and  some 
of  them  are  said  to  hold  their  viscosity  better.  They 
all  contain  oxygen,  however,  and  so  are  subject  to 
atmospheric  changes,  and  form  fatty  acids  which  at- 
tack the  metal.  They  are  also  liable  to  develop  in- 
ternal heat,  and  become  a  serious  fire  menace  through 
spontaneous  combustion,  a  property  that  the  mineral 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  209 

oils  do  not  possess.  The  chief  animal  oils  are  sperm, 
lard,  neat's-foot,  tallow,  and  whale  oil ;  the  best  known 
vei^etable  oils  include  olive,  rape,  castor,  palm  and 
cotton-seed.    Of  these  sperm  oil  is  specially  good,  but 


Fig   72.-Section  Through  Four  Cylinder  Motor,  Showing  Lubri- 
cating   System. 

not  for  heavy  loads  at  high  temperatures.     The  vege- 
table oils  as  a  class  are  particularly  volatile. 

261.  Mineral  or  Hydrocarbon  Oils.— The  mineral 
or  hydrocarbon  oils  are  obtained  from  crude  petroleum 
by  driving  off  the  more  volatile  elements  and  then 
refining  by  acids  and  filtering  what  remains.  This  is 
technically  known  as  the  cylinder  stocks.  The  paraf- 
fin distillates,  which  are  somewhat  lighter,  are  sepa- 
rately refined  and  the  oil  pressed  from  the  flake  paraf- 
fin   which  is  then  purified.     From  this  oil   come  the 

.  heavy  engine  oils,  of  high  velocity.  Out  of  the  general 
classification  comes  a  variety  of  brands,  many  of  them 
arising  from  a  difference  in  the  characteristics  of  the 
crude  oil  taken  from  different  fields.  The  Ohio  oils, 
for  instance,  contain  more  or  less  sulphur  and  as- 
phaltum,  while  Texas  oils,  though  free  from  sulphur, 


210         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

have  fully  as  much  asphaltum.  The  Texas  oils  have 
a  purple  bloom  and  are  specially  desirable,  because 
of  their  fine  cold  test,  in  refrigerating  works.  Penn- 
sylvania oil  has  a  distinctly  greenish  bloom  and  is 
much  used  in  the  cylinder  oils  of  commerce. 

262.  Testing  Oil  for  Acids. — Mix  a  little  oil  with 
alcohol  which  has  previously  been  heated  to  about 
120°.  After  several  minutes  dip  a  slip  of  litmus  paper 
(obtainable  at  any  drug  store  for  a  few  cents)  into  the 
mixture.  If  the  paper  remains  blue  there  is  no  acid ; 
if  it  turns  red,  acid  is  present.  Or  saturate  a  bit  of 
waste  or  cotton  with  the  oil  and  leave  for  eight  or  ten 
hours  in  the  sunlight  on  a  highly  polished  metal  sur- 
face. Even  a  slight  corrosion  denotes  free  acid.  A 
third  test,  rub  some  of  the  oil  over  a  bit  of  polished 
brass  and  leave  for  twenty-four  hours.  If  acid  is  pres- 
ent the  metal  will  turn  green.  It  is  needless  to  add 
that  oil  which  contains  free  acid  will  injure  metal 
surfaces  and  is  objectionable,  as  it  soon  roughens  the 
bearings. 

263.  Testing  for  Viscosity. — The  relative  viscosity 
or  body  of  two  different  oils  may  be  determined  by 
placing  a  drop  of  each  side  by  side  upon  an  inclined 
pane  of  glass.  The  thinner  oil  wall  of  course  run  the 
farthest  in  a  given  time.  By  keeping  a  systematic 
record  of  all  the  different  oils  used  and  tested,  one 
may  soon  have  a  very  good  knowledge  of  the  com- 
parative body  in  the  different  oils  he  has  used,  and  so 
determine  the  one  that  suits  his  purpose  best ;  provid- 
ing, always,  this  test  is  always  made  at  the  same  tem- 
perature and  with  the  glass  always  equally  inclined. 
Another  relative  test  is  by  counting  the  drops  that 
fall  from  a  small  orifice,  tlie  two  oils  under  the  same 
temperature  and  pressure. 

In  testing  viscosity  it  should  be  remembered  that 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  211 

the  practical  man  is  interested  in  the  body  which  the 
oil  shows  at  about  the  temperature  which  will  be 
maintained  while  in  use,  rather  than  in  its  behavior 
in  the  oil  barrel. 

Often  the  viscosity  can  be  determined  after  a  little 
experience  by  pinching  or  handling  the  oil  between  the 
thumb  and  finger.  This  test  the  adulterer  has  inter- 
fered with  by  introducing  resinous  or  gummy  matter 
in  the  oil  to  give  it  body.  In  order  to  determine  this 
a  quantity  of  the  oil  may  be  weighed  and  then  ignited 
in  a  crucible  until  the  carbon  is  burned  out.  If  more 
than  a  tenth  of  the  original  weight  is  left  in  the  ash 
residue  the  oil  has  been  thickened  with  some  adul- 
terant. 

264.  Testing  for  Adulterants. — Adulterants  may 
frequently  be  discovered  by  mixing  a  quantity  of  the 
oil  with  one-tenth  its  bulk  of  caustic  soda  dissolved 
in  95  per  cent,  alcohol.  Fatty  adulterants  become 
gelatinous  or  solid  when  cold. 

265.  Testing  for  Gum. — Going  back  to  our  first 
viscosity  test,  w^e  may  leave  the  oil  on  the  inclined 
glass  for  an  hour  and  then  attempt  to  wipe  it  off.  If 
it  comes  off  clean  it  is  free  from  gum ;  if  a  sticky 
streak  remains  the  oil  should  be  rejected.  Another 
test :  spread  a  thin  layer  of  oil  over  a  glass  pane  and 
expose  to  sunlight  but  protect  from  dust.  A  gummy 
oil  soon  becomes  sticky  or  tough.  A  still  more  defi- 
nite test :  barely  cover  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  dish 
with  oil  and  heat  to  about  250°  F.,  then  cool  slowly. 
When  cold  there  should  be  no  gummy  residue. 

266.  The  Flash  Test. — As  the  gasoline  engine  cyl- 
inder oil  is  used  in  the  presence  of  excessive  heat  it  is 
highly  important  that  both  the  flash  and  fire  test 
should  be  exceptionally  high,  though  of  course  not 
nearlv  so  high  as  the  excessive  heat  to  which  it  is  for 


212  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

a  moment  exposed  at  the  instant  the  charge  is  fired. 
About  the  only  satisfactory  test  of  this  requires  a  spe- 
cial thermometer  whereon  the  reading  goes  much 
higher  than  the  ordinary  temperature  thermometer; 
not  less  than  400'^  Fahr.  Place  a  small  metal  or  thin 
porcelain  dish  filled  with  oil  in  a  larger  vessel  which 
has  been  filled  with  sand,  sinking  the  fire  well  into 
the  sand ;  then  apply  heat  until  the  oil  begins  to 
vaporize.  The  sand  bath  is  for  the  purpose  of  heating 
all  sides  of  the  dish  evenly  instead  of  all  at  one  point 
of  contact.  Hold  a  lighted  match  above  the  dish  in 
the  midst  of  the  rising  gases  until  there  is  a  flash  or 
ignition ;  then  note  the  reading  of  the  thermom- 
eter. This  is  the  flash  point;  that  is,  the  lowest 
temperature  at  which  the  oil  vapors  take  fire  and 
then  go  out. 

267.  The  Fire  Test. — The  fire  test  is  the  same  as 
the  flash  test,  but  is  carried  a  little  farther,  as  the  fir- 
ing point  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  the 
vapors  not  only  ignite  but  continue  to  burn.  This 
should  be  from  60°  to  75°  higher  than  the  flash  point. 

268.  The  Cold  Test. — There  are  some  instances 
where  the  cold  test  of  an  oil  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance, specially  where  the  engine  is  to  be  operated 
much  in  low  temperatures.  The  congealing  point  of 
any  oil  is  easily  taken  by  actual  experiment.  It  should 
always  be  remembered  though  that  after  an  oil  has 
shown  anything  like  reasonable  working  qualities  at 
low  temperature  the  test  should  not  be  too  rigid,  since 
extra  superiority  here  is  apt  to  mean  a  sacrifice  of  the 
other  extreme.  After  all,  a  good  cold  test  is  more 
nearly  a  matter  of  convenience,  while  a  high  fire  test 
is  a  positive  necessity. 

269.  Carbon. — The  specific  gravity  of  an  oil  is  a 
pretty  accurate  guide  to  the  carbon  it  contains,  pro- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  213 

viding  adulterants  have  not  been  added.  As  the  heat 
in  the  cylinder  is  enough  to  burn  and  evaporate  any 
oil  more  or  less,  and  as  this  drives  out  the  hydrogen, 
it  follows  that  the  oil  richest  in  carbon  will  deposit 
the  greatest  load  of  dirt  and  trouble.  All  of  these 
oils  deposit  some  carbon  when  they  burn.  That  oil 
which  is  of  lightest  weight  and  still  possesses  body 
enough  to  do  its  work  is  best,  where  specific  gravity 
alone  is  taken  as  the  test.  By  igniting  a  quantity  of 
the  oil  in  a  small  vessel  and  holding  a  bit  of  window 
glass  over  it  for  a  stated  length  of  time  while  it  burns, 
the  amount  of  carbon  it  deposits  can  be  readily  ap- 
proximated. 

270.  Oil  Waste  and  Engine  Waste. — No  thorough 
test  of  the  lubricating  system  has  been  made  that  does 
not  include  the  man  behind  the  oil  can.  The  oil  that 
is  squirted  carelessly  over  the  outside  of  the  frame  is 
of  no  value  to  the  engine,  though  it  serves  an  im- 
portant mission  in  an  accumulation  of  dirt.  A  gaso- 
line engine,  if  it  is  to  do  good  work,  must  be  kept 
clean,  but  this  cannot  be  done  unless  good  oil  is  used 
and  not  unless  it  is  used  properly.  Where  lubricators 
are  not  used  it  sometimes  requires  considerable  judg- 
ment to  know  just  when  to  oil ;  when  they  are,  one 
must  know  how  to  set  them. 

271.  Quantity  of  Oil. — For  the  new  engine  the  cup 
supplying  the  piston  and  cylinder  should  be  set  to 
supply  about  25  drops  per  minute,  until  the  walls  have 
begun  to  acquire  their  glaze  and  the  engine  itself  has 
become  tuned  up  for  smooth  working ;  then  the  supply 
may  be  reduced.  The  exhaust  is  a  good  indicator  if 
too  much  oil  is  being  used,  a  heavy  blue  smoke  being 
pretty  conclusive  evidence  that  there  is.  Too  much 
oil  is  better  than  too  little,  but  it  is  not  very  much 
better,  for  it  soon  loads  the  piston  and  rings  down 


214 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


with  a  sooty  deposit  and  is  very  likely  to  short-circuit 
the  firing  plug. 

The  quantity  of  oil  needed  by  the  other  bearings 
can  best  be  told  by  careful  attention,  always  remem- 
bering that  some  bearings  tell  the  engineer  Avhen  they 
are  dry  while  others  only  tell  their  troubles  to  the 
engine.  It's  always  best  to  keep  on  familiar  terms 
with  them. 

272.  Lubricating  Systems. — While  there  are  many 
lubricating  devices  and  systems  in  common  use,  those 
described  below  will  probably  prove  of  greatest  in- 
terest to  the  owner  of  a  farm  engine. 

273.  The  Gravity  System. — The  gravity  system, 
much  in  favor  some  years  ago,  depends  for  the  flow 


Exterior. 


Sectional. 


Fig. 


'/2i- — Exterior    and    hiterior    Views    of    Sight    Feed    Gravity 
Lubricator. 


of  the  oil  upon  the  elevated  location  of  the  cups 
through  a  small  outlet  pipe  from  which  the  flow  can 
be  regulated  to  very  nearly  a  stated  number  of  drops 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  215 

oer  miiuite.  While  these  are  fairly  accurate  it  does 
'ot  " m.re  a  very  great  obstruction  to  cut  off  he 
flow  a  the  pressure  from  the  oil  above  m  so  small  a 
S  miel  is  insiguiflcant.  This  style,  however  is  u. 
ve  y  common  use,  in  part  because  of  its  simplicity 

In  The  Splash  System.-The  splash  system  re- 
quire; a  tight'  oil  case  enclosing  the  crank  shaft. 
Enough  oil  is  placed  m 
the  bottom  of  the  crank 
case  that  the  ends  of  the 
connecting  rods  dip  or 
splash  into  the  liquid  on 
their     downward     thrust, 

at   every   revolution,   and 

so  carry  up  enough  oil  to 

the  working  parts  of  the 

shaft    and    crank    to    sup- 
ply   them.       Enough    oil 

can  be  placed  in  the  tank 

at  once  to  last  for  some 

time,   and   all   surplus   oil 

carried     up      is      caught. 

With    some   people   there 

is  more  chance  of  forget- 

fulness      with       anything 

which     is    automatic    for 


Fig.  74— Explaining  the  Splash 
System  of  Lubrication. 


wnicn     IS     auLuiiidLi^     XV... 

davs  and  then  has  to  be  attended  to  than  with  some- 
thing requiring  constant  attention;  still  the  same  ar- 
gument might  be  used  against  the  use  o  a  tank  o 
hold  a  supply  of  gasoline  ahead.  The  sp  ash  system 
is  very  effective  so  long  as  a  supply  of  oil  is  kept  in 
the  tank.  Occasionally,  as  the  oil  becomes  discolored 
through  use.  it  should  be  <lrawn  off  and  filtered  or  new 

oil  introduced.  .  •     -i^^ 

a75.    The  Loose  Ring  System.-This  is  very  smidar 


2i6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

to  the  splash  system,  a  loose  ring  being  allowed  to 
swing  upon  the  shaft  and  carry  the  oil  up  with  it  as 
it  slowly  revolves.  It  is  hardly  as  effective  as  the 
splash  method,  however,  and  is  less  in  use. 


Fig.  75._Loose  Ring  for  Bearing  Lubricati 


276.  The  Pressure  System.— Sometimes  the  oil  is 
held  in  a  central  tank  or  source  of  supply,  into  which 
pressure  can  be  introduced.  This  forces  it  through 
connecting  pipes  with  the  various  bearings  and  the 
pressure  is  maintained  by  connecting  the  tank  with 
the  exhaust  or  with  an  enclosed  crank  case. 

277.  The  Positive  or  Force  Feed.— A  favorite 
method  now  because  of  its  certain  efficiency  is  the  use 
of  an  oil  pump  which  is  geared  to  the  engine  and 
which  forces  a  certain  quantity  of  the  oil  through  the 
various  feed  pipes  attached  to  it  with  each  stroke  of 
the  engine.  This  has  several  important  advantages, 
and.  with  a  supply  of  oil  back  of  it,  there  is  practically 
no  danger  of  any  bearing  thus  connected  being  over- 
looked. Of  course,  this  system  is  not  so  simple  as 
some  of  the  others,  and  it  is  more  costlv  to  install. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         217 

278  Oiling  Through  the  Carburetor.— While  this 
method  has  hardly  passed  the  experimental  stage, 
enouo-h  success  has  been  attained  to  render  it  worthy 
of  noHce;  indeed,  when  the  cylinder  walls  get  hot  and 


Fig     76.-Mechanically    Operated    Plunger    Oil    Pump    Insures 
Force   Feed. 

oil  refu<;es   to  stav  on   them   it  is  sometimes   recom- 
mended to  mix  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  of  the  best  heavy 
cylinder   oil   with   each   five   gallons   of   gasohne   and 
strain  into  gasoline  supply  tank.    This  divides  the  oil 
into   fine   globules   which    enter    the    engme    cylmder 
readily   through   the   carburetor   along  with   the   fuel 
vapor;   still   it   retains   enough   viscosity   to   settle   m 
a  fire  spray  upon  the  walls  and  keep  them  lubricated 
where  other  methods  fail.    When  this  method  is  used 
all   other  means   of  lubricating   the   cylinder   and   its 
immediate  accessories  may  be  dispensed  with,  though 
of  course  the  bearings  and  parts  contained  in  the  crank 
case  are  not  afTected.     These  must  be  oiled  through 
the  cups,  as  usual.     As  the  oil  applied  through  the 


2i8         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

gasoline  is  better  distributed  directly  to  the  point 
where  it  is  needed,  less  oil  is  required  and  less  car- 
bon, it  is  claimed,  occurs  in  the  cylinder. 

279.  Filtering.— Oil  finally  becomes  unfit  for  use, 
not  only  through  a  mixture  of  dirt,  dust  and  the  metal 
particles  which  scale  from  the  bearings,  but  through 
evaporation  and  actual  chemical  change.  Still  it  may 
be  used  over  again  several  times  for  the  bearings  if 
filtered,  but  even  after  filtering  should  not  be  used 
again  in  the  cylinder.  Ordinary  wicking  makes  a 
good  filtering  material,  though  it  may  take  filler  out  of 
oil  or  heavy  compounding  out  of  paraffin  oil  or  that 
of  high  viscosity,  and  leave  it  without  body.  Oil  may 
be  filtered  tAvo  or  three  times  and  used  over.  Even 
new  oil  should  be  filtered  before  using.  This  will  re- 
move much  dirt  and  impurities  that  otherwise  would 
be  liable  to  make  trouble  in  some  pipe  in  the  lubri- 
cating system. 

280.  Other  Lubricants.— Perhaps  this  chapter  would 
not  be  complete  without  a  brief  reference  to  a  few 
supplemental  lubricants  so  unlike  oils  in  their  nature 
that  it  hardly  seemed  best  to  refer  to  them  under  the 
same  head. 

281.  Graphite. — This  substance,  which  occurs  in 
nature  in  both  crystalline  and  amorphous  form,  when 
free  from  grit  and  impurities,  is  a  true  lubricant,  and 
possesses  for  certain  places  several  advantages  over 
oil.  It  is  not  aflfected  by  heat  or  cold  and  is  not  acted 
upon  by  acids  or  alkalies.  In  its  solid  form,  too,  there 
are  places  where  it  will  stand  up  under  its  work  when 
resisting  a  pressure  that  would  break  liquid  lubricants 
down.  In  some  measure  graphite  is  a  supplement  of 
oil  in  that  it  fills  in  and  removes  the  inequalities  in 
the  surface  to  be  lubricated,  while  the  oil  merely  slides 
over  them.     Its  glaze  surface  is  probably  more  durable 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  219 

and  more  the  nature  of  metal  itself  in  point  of  resist- 
ance against  the  breaking  of  the  gloss  than  the  best 
of  oil  ever  becomes,  and  it  has  frequently  happened 
that,  applied  alone  or  in  combination  with  oil,  it  has 
succeeded  in  places  where  oil  alone  failed. 

As  graphite  is  so  little  affected  by  heat,  it  is  spe- 
cially useful  in  establishing  a  high  glaze  finish  in  the 
o-asoline  engine  cylinder,  where  it  may  be  introduced 
through  the  spark  plug  port  with  a  teaspoon.  If 
mixed  with  oil,  use  not  over  a  teaspoonful  to  a  quart 
of  oil,  and  do  not  try  to  introduce  it  through  the 
regular  oil  cup  feed  pipes.  This  is  frequently  done 
wiUi    entire    success,    but    there    is    always    risk    of 

clogging. 

By  adding  graphite  to  the  cylinder  lubricating  sys- 
temi  faulty  compression,  when  caused  by  any  internal 
roughness,  may  be  done  away  with.  One  engine  user 
reports  that  after  considerable  trouble  with  his  com- 
pression, by  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  flake  graphite 
each  three  hours  during  a  twelve  hour  run  the  cylinder 
and  rings  of  his  engine  acquired  a  mirror-like  surface, 
and  there  was   no  trouble  with   his   compression  for 

three  vears. 

In  many  power  plants  graphite  is  considered  as 
much  an  essential  as  oil,  especially  where  there  are 
unusually  heavy  bearings  with  a  low  speed.  Applied 
to  valve  stems  in  connection  with  valve  oil,  it  is  a 
complete  success ;  also  when  made  into  a  paste  with 
oil  and  rubbed  upon  cams,  slides,  gears,  differentials, 
and  other  moving  parts,  chains,  sprockets,  etc.  A 
chain  treated  with  graphite  occasionally  will  run  dry 
but  silent  and  dirt  will  not  stick.  It  is  also  excellent 
as  a  coating  for  any  threaded  nut  or  bolt,  as  it  per- 
mits easy  insertion  and  at  the  same  time  easy  removal. 
It   is   often   used   upon    spark    plugs    before   they   are 


220         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

screwed  into  their  socket,  and  insures  absolutely  tight 
joints. 

282.  Grease. — There  seems  to  be  no  one  lubricant 
that  is  best  in  all  places.  In  some  respects  grease  has 
a  decided  advantage  over  oil.  It  stays  in  place  better 
for  one  thing  and,  if  a  surplus  happens  to  be  intro- 
duced, instead  of  running  down  the  outside  of  the 
boxings,  it  piles  up  in  high  collars  on  each  side  of  the 
bearing  and  shuts  ofif  the  entrance  of  dirt  and  grit. 

Oil  is  not  heavy  enough  in  body  to  protect  the  shaft 
from  any  real  abrading  substance  which  happens  to 
get  into  the  bearing,  while  grease  is.  It  also  acts  as 
a  cushion,  and  makes  gears  run  more  quietly,  and  of 
course  with  less  strain  and  friction  :  hence  they  are 
not  so  liable  to  chip  when  going  into  mesh.  Grease 
is  also  best  for  differentials,  and  in  places  where  drip 
is  objectionable  it  is  of  special  value.  IMixed  with 
graphite  it  is  one  of  the  very  best  lubricants  known 
for  gear  wheels. 

283.  Foolish  Economy. — Friction  and  actual  abuse 
are  the  two  things  which  above  all  others  make  ma- 
chinery expensive,  and  it  is  certainly  foolish  economy 
to  cheapen  the  one  thing  with  which  we  are  able  in 
some  measure  to  overcome  this  expense.  Some  one 
has  said  that  lubrication  is  cheaper  than  the  cheapest 
machinery  is,  and  some  one  else  that  it  is  the  cheapest 
of  repairs.  Both  of  these  statements  are  true.  Both 
should  be  committed  to  memory  by  every  owner  of 
machinery,  and  should  be  repeated  daily,  especially 
if  that  machine  is  a  gasoline  engine.  When  we  con- 
sider the  tremendous  strain  of  pressure,  heat  and 
speed  that  is  put  upon  this  one  bit  of  mechanism  all 
at  the  same  time,  it  seems  wonderful  that  any  thing 
made  Avith  human  hands  could  endure  it  and  survive. 
Certainlv   w^e   who    are   benefitted    should    so    far   co- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  221 

operate  with  our  little  assistant  as  to  furnish  the  very 
best  supplies  the  market  affords.     After  all    the  d.t- 
ference  between   the   price   of   worthless   and   of   the 
be-t  oil  is  but  a  few  cents;  not  so  great  but  we  may 
most  of  us  make  it  up  in  cleanlier  habits  and  greater 
care  in  the  use  of  the  oil  can.     Much  of  the  trouble 
experienced  with  the  first  crude  gasoline  engmes    it 
has  been  discovered,  lay  in  faulty  lubrication-faults 
of 'the  world's  knowledge.     When  we  take  into  con- 
sideration the  fact  that  our  more  perfected  methods 
of   -etting   the   oil   we   use   to   the    very   spot   where 
it  is  needed  have  effected  a  wonderful  saving  m  the 
quantity  of  oil  used,  we  surely  have  no  possible  excuse 
for  using  any  but  the  very  best  lubricants,  be  they 
oil    or    graphite,. or    grease,    that    the    market    will 

''"28/   Ten    Lubricating    Commandments.— The    oil 

that  rolls  out  of  the  exhaust  in  the  form  of  smoke  is 
not  a  lubricating  expense.  ,,      c      , 

It  is  the  small  crystal  of  grit  that  plugs  the  feed 
pipe;not  the  large  one  that  cannot  get  in. 

Some  engine  owners  seem  to  think  that  the  best 
way  to  oil  an  engine  is  by  the  absorption  system, 
through  the  pores  of  the  frame.      Don't  try  it. 

Fill  all  the  large  oil  holes  up  with  woolen  yarn  in- 
stead of  hay-seed. 

Too  much  oil  is  a  little  better  than  not  enough  and 
a  great  deal  better  than  a  seized  piston. 

Don't  forget  the  bearings;  the  lower  as  well  as  the 

"Te'ros^'ene  or  gasoline  will  carry  oil  into  places  where 
it  would  not  otherwise  go.     Be  sure  that  it  gets  there, 

if  it  is  needed.  . 

The  best  oil  is  usually  the  thinnest  that  will  stay 

in  place  and  do  its  work. 


2.22         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

Proper  lubricants  insure  against  many  cylinder 
troubles. 

There  is  only  a  few  cents  difference  in  the  first  cost 
of  a  good  and  poor  lubricant.  The  later  difference 
mav  be  many  dollars. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

ELIMINATION    OF   ENGINE   TROUBLES. 

285.  Classified  Trouble. — Even  our  troubles  may  be 
classified  if  we  look  after  them  with  sufficient  system ; 
and  system  is  the  one  thing  which  above  everything 
else  it  is  the  writer's  wish  to  urge  in  this  unlucky 
thirteenth  chapter. 

286.  Starting  Troubles. — Gasoline  engine  troubles 
include  those  numerous  ailments,  little  and  big,  any 
one  of  which  may  prevent  the  engine  from  starting  at 
all  or  with  enough  real  life  to  keep  it  in  motion  until 
we  have  a  chance  to  come  upon  our  second  class  of 
difficulties,  or  operating  troubles. 

287.  Operating  Troubles. — By  this  we  mean  the 
various  matters  wuich,  while  they  permit  us  to  start 
the  engine  and  keep  it  going,  compel  us  to  face  some 
more  or  less  disagreeable  behavior  which  is  not  nor- 
mal and  which  we  wish  to  discontinue. 

288.  Transmission  Troubles. — The  engine  itself 
may  operate  without  fault,  and  still,  because  of  some 
difficulty  we  may  have  in  transforming  its  energy  into 
useful  work,  we  may  be  able  to  accomplish  a  desired 
task  with  it  only  through  the  unreasonable  waste  of 
personal  effort,  or  else  not  at  all. 

289.  Energy  Troubles. — It  is  not  so  very  uncom- 
mon for  an  engine  when  out  of  repair  to  run  empty 
with  as  much  seeming  willingness  as  usual  and  still 
not  develop  enough  energy  to  carry  it  along  when 
hitched  to  a  load. 

223 


224  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

290.  Irregular  Troubles.— Some  troubles  come  to 
us  out  of  conditions  from  which  we  might  expect  the 
very  results  we  get  as  soon  as  our  attention  is  called 
to  them.  There  are,  however,  occasional  surprises  for 
which  we  are  not  prepared,  and  perhaps  cannot  at  the 
time  account;  the  irregular  things  that  do  not  happen 
very  often,  and  for  which  the  usual  list  of  ready  made 
remedies  will  not  avail.  To  all  of  these  classes  we  will 
now  give  a  few  moments'  attention. 

291.  The  Origin  of  Most  Trouble.— A\  hen  we  come 
to  look  at  the  matter  fairly  most  of  our  gasoline  engine 
troubles  come  from  one  of  two  sources,  the  things  we 
forget,  and  the  things  we  don't  know.  The  frozen 
water  jacket  is  not  one  of  the  inevitable  results  of  gas 
engine  management.  Usually  it  troubles  us  only  once 
at  the  first  of  the  freezing  season  before  draining  the 
pipes  becomes  a  fixed  habit.  So  it  is  with  nearly  all 
trouble ;  something  that  doesn't  often  go  wrong  gives 
us  a  surprise,  or  else  some  part  of  the  engine  that  has 
been  so  completely  self-attending  that  we  have  never 
given  it  any  thought  springs  something  upon  us  that 
we  did  not  previously  know. 

292.  The  First  Thing  to  Do.— The  very  first  thing 
to  get  when  trouble  comes  is  a  firm  grasp  of  the  idea 
that  there  is  a  reason.  The  engine  ran  all  right  in 
normal  condition.  If  it  fails  later  on  it  is  because 
that  normal  condition  has  been  disturbed.  The  rea- 
son may  be  hard  to  find,  but  there  is  one,  and  nothing 
else  is  to  be  done  until  that  reason  is  hunted  out. 
Above  everything  else,  don't  get  excited ;  nothing 
serious  is  going  to  happen  if  we  keep  our  nerve.  It 
isn't  like  having  something  go  wrong  with  a  steam 
boiler  and  a  full  head  of  steam  and  heavy  fire  behind 
it.  While  we  are  studying  the  situation  over  the  gaso- 
line engine  is  just  a  harmless  piece  of  iron,  no  more 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  22^ 

dangerous  than  the  anvil  beside  it ;  so  there  is  all  the 
reason  in  the  world  for  keeping  it  just  a  piece  of  iron 
until  we  can  begin  to  understand  the  nature  of  the 
trouble. 

It's  a  pretty  good  idea,  first  of  all,  to  go  over  the 
simpler  things  that  we  sometimes  forget,  or  are  care- 
less about  because  they  are  simple.  It  does  not  take 
long  to  investigate  these,  and  it  is  surprising  how 
many  gasoline  engine  experts  have  been  called  out 
when  the  gasoline  tank  needed  refilling  or  the  engineer 
had  forgotten  to  close  the  switch.  Look  first  of  all 
to  the  tank.  If  it  is  full,  notice  whether  a  flying  new^g- 
paper  or  even  a  dead  leaf  may  not  have  closed  the  air 
entrance,  and  so  shut  off  the  oxygen.  While  looking 
at  the  carburetor  better  notice,  too,  whether  the  gaso- 
line is  coming  over.  Maybe  the  pipe  is  clogged.  A 
good  way  to  test  this  is  to  open  the  switch,  so  there 
can  be  no  ignition,  then  have  some  one  crank  the  en- 
gine and  stand  directly  back  of  the  exhaust.  If  get- 
ting its  supply  of  fuel,  and  the  valves  are  working  as 
they  should,  a  strong  scent  of  gasoline  is  noticeable 
in  the  discharge.  If  the  engine  is  water  cooled  notice 
whether  it  has  been  overheating.  Even  if  no  ice  is  in 
the  jacket  pipes  are  prone  to  freeze  before  the  heavier 
body  of  water  is  affected. 

293.  When  It  Proves  to  Be  Real  Trouble. — Once 
convinced  that  none  of  the  little  outside  slips  of 
memory  are  to  blame,  we  are  ready  to  go  after  the 
difliculty  in  the  interior  of  the  engine.  Other  things 
being  equal,  it  is  always  best  to  investigate  the 
simplest  thing  first,  though  of  course  we  ought  to 
modify  this  so  as  to  first  catch  that  which  we  have 
some  reasonable  excuse  for  thinking  may  be  wrong. 
Whatever  wrenches,  pliers  and  other  tools  we  have 
that  we  are  at  all  likely  to  need  should  be  laid  out 


22.G         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

in  convenient  reach  as  there  is  nothing  more  dis- 
turbing to  the  puzzled  machinist  than  having  to  spend 
half  his  mental  energy  in  finding  things.  A  good 
assistant  is  a  great  help  in  this,  while  a  poor  one  is 
worse  than  a  wrench  without  a  handle. 

294.  Test  with  System. — In  no  part  of  engine 
management  is  system  more  an  assistance  than  in  the 
hunting  of  trouble.  On  no  account  permit  in  yourself 
or  any  one  else  the  habit  of  testing  a  part  here,  another 
there  and  another  over  on  the  other  side.  After  the 
first  cursory  glance  over  the  entire  engine  for  some 
superficial  difficulty,  the  most  rigid  attention  to  sys- 
tem is  surprisingly  helpful,  even  a  poor  system  being 
better  than  none  at  all.  As  60  per  cent,  of  all  real 
engine  troubles  lie  in  some  part  of  the  ignition  system 
that  is  the  most  logical  place  for  us  to  go. 

295.  A  Few  Simple  Questions. — To  avoid  the  pos- 
sibility of  confusion,  let  us  take  one  thing  at  a  time 
and  think  it  over  a  little  before  beginning  to  take 
things  apart.  With  the  switch  open,  let  some  one 
hand  crank  the  engine  slowly  and  study  each  stroke 
by  itself. 

Is  the  suction  stroke  all  right?  Does  the  intake  valve 
appear  to  be  opening  as  it  should,  and  does  it  appear 
to  close  soon  after  the  end  of  the  stroke?  If  so,  step 
back  of  the  exhaust  and  let  the  cranking  continue  till 
the  cylinder  is  scavenged  out;  then  notice  whether  the 
customary  fumes  of  gasoline  vapor  are  coming  over. 
If  not,  suspect  the  carburetor  or  the  intake  system 
somewhere,  and  test  in  detail.  If  so,  continue  the 
cranking  and  study  the  compression  stroke. 

Is  there  as  much  resistance  to  the  piston  as  there 
should  be?  The  compression  in  a  five-horse  engine 
should  be  just  a  little  too  much  for  an  ordinary  man 
to  crank  against  without  opening  the  relief  cock.    If  it 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  227 

fails  to  put  up  that  sort  of  a  fight  look  for  external 
leaks  first,  around  the  base  of  the  spark  plug,  the 
valves,  the  joint  between  the  cylinder  and  its  head 
if  detachable,  or  the  piston  rings.  Somew^here  a  hiss- 
ing may  be  heard.  If  at  the  open  end  of  the  cylinder 
the  rings  are  leaking.  If  the  hissing  is  some  place 
about  the  other  end,  coat  all  the  places  suspected  w^ith 
soapy  v^ater  or  oil,  and  v\^atch  for  bubbles.  If  the 
compression  is  good,  try  out  the  power  stroke.  As 
most  of  the  functions  of  tliat  can  only  be  studied  from 
within,  assume  them  to  be  properly  performed,  while 
strongly  suspecting  that  they  are  not,  and  pass  on  to 
the  exhaust  stroke  long  enough  to  watch  the  working 
of  the  valve. 

We  have  now  found  out  that  the  fuel  is  being  de- 
livered and  compressed,  that  the  cylinder  is  being 
cleared  of  burned  gases.  Is  the  charge  really  being 
exploded?  Let  us  close  the  switch  and  see.  If  so,  is 
it  on  time?  If  it  isn't,  our  interview  is  with  the 
timer.  If  it  doesn't  explode  at  all  there  is  something 
wrong  with  the  spark,  its  formation,  transmission  or 
delivery. 

296.  Protecting  the  Hands. — The  current  from  a 
four  to  six  cell  battery,  which  is  about  what  most  farm 
engines  use,  is  not  at  all  dangerous,  and  only  moder- 
ately painful ;  still  there  are  people  whose  nerves  will 
be  so  affected  by  a  few  shocks  that  it  may  trouble 
them,  so  it  is  best  to  put  on  a  pair  of  rubber  gloves. 
This  insulates  the  hands.  Rubber  boots  or  even  a  dry 
board  is  usually  sufficient,  or  any  other  insulating  sub- 
stance interposed  between  the  person  and  the  ground; 
still  one  may  have  occasion,  while  working  with  both 
hands,  to  connect  himself  into  a  circuit  through  the 
iron  frame,  so  the  gloves  are  best.  They  are  not  ex- 
pensive are  so  pliable  that  'they  do  not  interfere  with 


228  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  work,  and  a  pair  used  only  for  engine  repair  work, 
if  kept  free  from  oil,  will  last  a  long  time. 

297.  Testing  the  Electric  System. — Before  making 
any  internal  investigation  notice  whether  all  the  wires 
are  fast  on  the  binding  posts,  and  if  the  latter  are 
screwed  up  tightly  enough  to  insure  a  perfect  contact 
with  the  metal.  If  there  is  a  loose  wire  end  the  trouble 
is  found.  Next,  release  the  wire  running  to  the  spark 
plug  hy  turning  off  the  screw  cap,  and,  holding  the 
point  of  the  wire  near  the  engine  frame  but  not  quite 
touching ;  have  an  assistant  close  the  switch  and  crank 
the  wheel.  If  a  fat,  yellow  spark  jumps  the  gap  be- 
tween the  wire  and  frame  there  is  probably  nothing 
wrong  with  the  electric  system  unless  it  is  in  the  plug 
or  the  timing;  but  if  no  spark  appears  or  if  it  is  of  a 
pale  color  the  difficulty  is  in  all  probability  between 
that  point  and  the  battery.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  force  the  spark  over  too  wide  a  gap  or  the  insula- 
tion of  the  coil  may  be  broken  doAvn  and  a  serious 
repair  bill  engendered.  For  the  inexperienced,  less 
than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  gap  should  be  used. 

298.  If  the  Spark  Is  Good. — If  the  spark  seems 
strong  remove  the  spark  plug  from  the  cylinder  and 
note  whether  the  gap  between  the  points  has  gotten 
closed  up  with  carbon  deposit  or  if  the  metal  is  badly 
corroded.  Clean  the  points  thoroughly  and  also  wipe 
the  porcelain  clean.  It  is  just  possible  that  the  in- 
sulation of  the  plug  may  have  been  broken  down. 
Test  this  by  replacing  the  wire  terminal,  screwing 
down  the  cap  and  having  the  engine  cranked.  If  the 
resulting  spark  is  good,  the  trouble  is  in  some  other 
part  of  the  engine ;  if  much  weaker  than  that  which 
passed  between  the  wire  and  the  frame,  the  plug  is 
faulty;  if  about  the  same,  but  weak,  some  other  part 
of  the  ignition   system  is  'at  fault.     These  directions 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  229 

have  been  written  with  the  jump  spark  system  in  mind, 
but  apply  equally  to  the  make  and  break  system. 

299  A  Poor  Spark.— If  the  spark  is  poor  or  does 
not  appear  at  all  we  will  follow  the  cable  carefully 
back  from  the  plug  to  its  other  terminal,  notmg  par- 


Fig    77.-Pocket    Size    Battery   Testing   Gauge    Indicates    Either 
Volts  or  Amperes. 

ticularly  whether  there  are  any  points  in  it  which  in- 
dicate a  broken  wire  under  the  covering.  If  there  are 
none,  see  that  the  terminals  are  free  from  grease  and 
with  good  contacts  under  the  binding  posts. 

300.     Testing  the  Batteries.— Beginning  at  the  other 


230         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

end  of  the  system,  we  will  now  find  out  Avhether  we 
have  anything  that  will  make  a  spark.  Let  us  see 
Avhether  all  of  the  battery  wires  are  properly  con- 
nected, whether  any  are  broken,  if  all  terminals  are 
clean  and  the  contact  good,  or  if  there  are  any  signs  of 
a  short-circuit  in  them.  Next  disconnect  both  ter- 
minal wires  and  test  the  reading  with  the  ammeter; 
then  test  each  cell  separately,  at  the  same  time  watch- 
ing for  one  coated  on  outside  of  cup  with  white 
crystals.  If  one  is  weak,  remove  it,  as  it  will  run  the 
others  down  rapidly. 

If  an  ammeter  is  not  at  hand  for  this  testing,  the 
same  results  may  be  obtained  by  bringing  the  bare 
ends  of  two  wires  attached  to  the  battery  terminals 
into  contact  and  then  pulling  apart.  Each  cell  can 
be  tested  separately  in  this  way,  although,  of  course, 
the  intensity  of  the  resulting  spark  can  only  be  esti- 
mated by  its  color. 

301.  Testing  the  Coil. — We  have  now  reason  to 
believe  that  a  good  spark  is  being  delivered  to  the 
coil ;  that  is,  after  we  have  seen  that  these  connec- 
tions are  all  right.  It  still  remains  to  test  the  coil. 
If  it  is  receiving  a  good  current  it  is  either  delivering 
a  good  one  to  the  secondary  cable  or  else  is  wasting 
it  through  some  short-circuit  or  broken  down 
insulation. 

Remove  the  secondary  cable  from  the  coil  terminal 
and  substitute  a  short  wire  from  the  end  of  which  an 
air  gap  may  be  formed  with  any  primary  or  low-ten- 
sion post.  If,  with  a  gap  of  about  %  inch,  a  good 
white  spark  is  delivered,  the  wire  may  be  removed 
and  the  secondary  cable  replaced.  But  if  the  coil  fails 
to  deliver  the  spark,  a  readjustment  of  the  platinum 
contacts  (see  that  they  are  clean)  may  help  matters. 
Loosen  the  screw  that  holds  them  slightly  and  then 


The  C7\soline  Engine  on  the  Farm         231 

tighten  a  little  at  a  time  and  test.     Then  look  to  the 
timer  and  see  that  the  inside  spring  is  not  broken.     If 
all  is  found  right  and  there  is  still  no  spark  we  may 
be  pretty  certain  that  the  coil  is  burned  out;  that  is, 
that  somewhere  within  that  winding  of  wire  the  in- 
sulation has  given  way  and  is  permitting  the  current 
to  short-circuit  and  be  wasted.     It  is  useless  for  the 
novice  to  attempt  to  remedy  this,  or,  in  most  instances, 
for  the  local  repair  shop,  either.    The  coil  should  then 
be   removed   from   the   engine   and   sent   back   to   the 
factory  where  it  was  made  or  to  one  of  its  branches. 
Except  from  abuse  this  very  seldom   happens.     Ex- 
posure to  moisture,  however,  will  in  time  rot  out  the 
insulation  while  an  over-resistance  placed  in  the  path 
of  the  current,  such  as  a  wider  gap  than  the  coil  is 
made  for,  or  poor  contact  of  the  terminal  wires  through 
careless   connections  or   greasy  terminals,  may  cause 
the  spark  to  break  through  the  insulation  in  its  ef- 
fort to  find  an  easier  path. 

If  spark  from  coil  is  intermittent,  examine  the  plat- 
inum points  for  pitting  and,  if  found,  smooth  them 
down  with  a  fine  file  or,  better  still,  an  oil  stone. 

If  the  spark  is  uniformly  weak  there  may  be  a 
broken  dov/n  condenser  which  the  shop  had  better 
replace. 

302.  A  Faulty  Magneto.— If  the  spark  is  uniformly 
weak  in  the  case  of  a  magneto  the  field  magnets  need 
remagnetizing  or  else  the  armature  winding  is  burned 
out.  In  either  case  the  magneto  must  be  returned  to 
the  shop. 

Irregular  firing  of  the  magneto  may  be  due  to  the 
incorrect  working  of  the  contact  breaker.  This  can 
be  determined  by  swinging  the  flat  spring  (numbered 
119  in  cut)  aside,  taking  off  the  end  cap  (117)  and 
tightening  up  the  screw  at  2  (see  cut  No.  45).     Also 


232         The  Gasolixe  Engine  ox  the  Farm 

tighten  screw  at  5  and  6  and  the  steel  segments  at 
21.  Examine  platinum  points  and  remove  any  oil  or 
grease.  The  contact  breaker  can  be  removed  by  means 
of  screw  at  Xo.  2  but  any  further  dismantling  of 
the  magneto  by  the  novice  is  useless  and  should  not 
be  undertaken. 

Aside  from  dirty  or  wet  connections  or  a  slight  dis- 
placement of  the  contact  points,  it  is  not  once  in  a 
hundred  times  that  any  trouble  will  be  found  with  the 
coil  or  magneto;  indeed,  the  trouble  here  is  so  infre- 
quent that  it  sometimes  is  overlooked  because  one  is 
likely  to  forget  between  times  that  any  trouble  can 
occur  here.  Always,  before  condemning  either,  be  ab- 
solutely sure  that  all  connecting  Avires  are  insulated 
and  that  the  terminal  connections  are  complete.  A 
loose  binding  nut  due  to  a  stripped  thread,  or  even 
dirty  contacts,  may  be  enough  to  interrupt  the  current. 
Spark  plugs,  it  is  well  to  remember,  may  short- 
circuit  an  electric  current  when  hot  and  not  when 
cold ;  also  they  sometimes  fail  to  produce  a  spark  prop- 
erly when  in  place  in  the  cylinder  although  they  may 
do  so  when  removed  from  it. 

303.  A  Good  Spark.— It  may.  be  well  to  describe 
what  a  good  hot  spark  looks  like  and  what  some  of 
its  feeble  imitations  are. 

A  w^hite  or  blue-white  compact  spark  is  ahvays  a 
good  hot  one.  If  it  shows  red  it  is  weak.  If  divided 
into  little  tongues  of  flame,  look  for  short-circuits.  If 
pale  and  rather  greenish  the  spark  is  weak.  A  short, 
fat,  yellow  spark  can  always  be  trusted. 

304.  Where  the  Shock  is  Felt.— In  making  the  ex- 
amination of  the  ignition  system  one  may  notice  that 
the  primary  circuit  causes  no  serious  inconvenience 
when  so  handled  that  a  shock  is  felt,  and  that  it  is 
always  the  secondary  currents  that  have  the  sting  in 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  233 

them.  The  Avinding  in  the  induction  coil  is  for  the 
purpose  of  intensifying  the  current  of  the  secondary 
or  high  tension  system.  How  well  this  is  done  may  be 
surmised  from  the  fact :  that,  while  a  battery  of  six 
ordinary  dry  cells  produces  a  current  of  about  nine 
volts,  it  requires  something  like  4,000  volts  to  pro- 
duce a  ^-inch  spark. 

305.  A  Few  Ignition  Facts. — Faults  of  insulation, 
that  is,  short-circuits,  are  more  important  along  the 
transmission  line  than  are  dirty  plug  points  unless 
there  is  a  complete  bridge  between  the  latter  for  the 
current  to  cross. 

The  positive  battery  terminal,  the  carbon,  should 
always  be  connected  with  the  coil,  in  the  jump  spark 
system. 

With  the  wiring  all  connected  up,  the  absence  of 
the  characteristic  buzz  at  the  coil  box  when  the  engine 
wheel  is  turned  over  is  evidence  that  something  is 
wrong  with  the  system. 

Six  volts  and  one-half  ampere  of  current  should  be 
ample  to  operate  a  good  coil.  If  set  to  use  more, 
it  only  runs  the  battery  down  that  much  faster.  Five 
cells  of  dry  battery  ought  to  give  this. 

Excessive  current  or  disconnected  secondary  wires, 
if  the  cells  are  fresh  and  strong,  may  cause  the  cur- 
rent to  seek  a  short  cut  in  the  coil  and  break  down 
the  insulation. 

The  make  and  break  contact  points  gradually  fuse 
and  shorten  with  use  until  presently  the  time  comes 
when  they  will  no  longer  reach  to  complete  the  cir- 
cuit ;  then  the  engine  refuses  to  fire  at  all,  until  they 
are  lengthened. 

If  one  cylinder  of  a  multi-cylinder  engine  continu- 
ally misfires  while  the  others  do  not,  suspect  the  plug. 

If  ignition  fails  suddenly  it  is  a  pretty  good  indica- 


234         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

tion  that  there  is  a  short-circuit,  probably  in  the  wires 
or  coil. 

Often  a  broken  porcelain  in  the  spark  plug  causes 
the  short-circuit;  and  the  break  is  often  due  to  screw- 
ing the  plug  into  its  socket  too  tightly.  Never  use  a 
large  wrench  for  this.  The  hand  is  often  enough 
though,  with  the  standard  }4-inch  pipe  thread  which 
is  tapering,  more  leverage  may  be  needed.  A  plug 
that  is  moderately  tight  wdien  cold  may  become  so 
tight  when  heated  that  the  porcelain  will  break. 

306.  A  Suspected  Timer. — Notice  if  there  are  any 
worn  parts  about  the  timer.  It  must  be  absolutely 
accurate,  and  there  is  nothing  accurate  about  worn 
parts.  The  ground  wire  circuit  should  be  looked  after, 
lest  the  timer  lubricants  may  be  interfering  with  it. 
Clean  out  all  grease,  gum  and  oil,  and  put  in  new 
castor  oil  or  light  sewing  machine  oil. 

Open  pet  cock  in  top  of  cylinder  and  turn  engine 
over  by  hand  with  switch  closed  and  fuel  shut  off. 
The  spark  should  come  just  after  the  escaping  air  stops 
hissing.  This  is  not  a  very  delicate  test  but  it  is 
sufficiently  accurate  to  prove  whether  the  timer  has 
slipped. 

307.  Other  Troubles. — With  a  good  spark  at  the 
plug  and  the  gasoline  mixture  coming  over  all  right 
some  of  the  other  reasons  for  a  balky  engine  are  stick- 
ing valves,  and  water  in  the  gasoline.  The  first  of 
these  may  be  detected  by  watching  the  valve  stems 
while  the  engine  is  being  cranked ;  the  second,  by  test- 
ing the  gasoline. 

Often,  too,  the  novice,  in  his  anxiety  to  start  well, 
is  overzealous  in  supplying  gasoline  to  the  carburetor, 
and  floods  it  so  that  too  rich  a  mixture  comes  over; 
or  the  air  inlet  may  be  too  small,  or  obstructed.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  may  be  an  excess  of  air  because 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  235 

of  a  leak  somewhere  along  the  intake  pipe  or  on  ac- 
count of  a  grain  of  dirt  in  the  spray  nozzle.  Remem- 
ber that  air  is  sure  to  occupy  all  space  not  taken  up 
with  gasoline  vapor,  and,  if  anything  cuts  down  the 
supply  of  the  latter,  there  is  certain  to  be  an  excess  of 
air. 

308.  When  the  Engine  Starts. — It  is  generally  use- 
less to  continue  cranking  the  engine  that  refuses  to 
go  with  the  first  half  dozen  turns.  That  is  more 
than  enough  to  overcome  all  the  little  ordinary  causes 
of  hesitation.  Let  us  suppose  the  engine  starts  off 
nicely  and  takes  us  along  to  our  next  counterful  of 
troubles — operating  difficulties. 

309.  Lack  of  Power. — Many  an  engine  will  run 
nicely  empty,  and  still  balk  if  asked  to  take  on  even  a 
moderate  load.  Almost  the  same  list  of  questions  may 
be  asked  again  that  were,  when  it  refused  to  start,  al- 
though the  answers  may  be  different. 

1st.     What  about  the  mixture;  is  it  right? 

This  question  can  only  be  answered  by  experiment- 
ing a  little.  Increase  the  supply  of  gasoline  until  black 
smoke  appears  in  the  exhaust,  then  gradually  cut  off, 
and  watch  the  engine.  When  it  begins  to  show  more 
power,  continue  cutting  down  the  gasoline  until  the 
explosions  begin  to  lack  regularity  and  vigor,  then 
increase  until  at  their  strongest.  In  the  same  man- 
ner, open  and  cut  off  the  supply  of  air  until  satisfied 
that  there  is  nothing  wrong  with  the  mixture. 

2nd.     How  about  the  compression? 

This  can  best  be  studied  before  the  engine  starts, 
so,  after  having  previously  watched  it  so  closely,  we 
can   now  afford  to  take  it  for  granted  for  the  time. 

3rd.  All  that  remains  to  study  about  the  ignition 
is  to. notice  whether  the  timing  is  in  harmony  with  the 
work  and   the  fuel ;  whether  the  explosions  come  at 


^Z6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  right  moment  of  revolution,  and  if  about  the  right 
proportion  are  missed.  Running  under  full  loadt  a 
miss  of  one  explosion  in  eight  is  a  very  fair  perform- 
ance:  and  running  under  light  load,  three  misses  be- 
tween each  fire  is  not  bad.  A  short  time  studying 
these  symptoms  sometimes  accomplishes  more  in  the 
right  direction  than  several  hours  of  dismantling  and 
reassembline. 

4th.  The  exhaust  should  next  be  studied;  whether 
the  valve  is  opening  fully  and  at  the  right  time  or  if 
it  is  closing  as  it  should.  It  is  always  barely  possible 
that  there  is  not  sufficient  vent,  owing  to  an  accumu- 
lation of  carbon  or  lime.  Never  forget,  either,  the  im- 
portance of  the  symptoms  which  may  be  found  here; 
that  black  smoke  means  too  much  fuel  or,  rather' 
faulty  combustion ;  blue  smoke,  too  much  lubricating 
oil,  and  white  smoke,  too  much  oil  or  water  or  oil  of 
an  inferior  quality.  While  only  a  matter  of  extrava- 
gant expense  in  itself,  this  represents  a  condition  in 
the  interior  of  the  cylinder  which  is  daily  bringing 
us  nearer  to  the  time  when  pre-ignition,  broken  or  bent 
crank  shafts  and  similar  troubles  will  be  taking  our 
attention. 

5th.  Is  the  power  impulse  delivered  to  the  crank 
shaft,  or  is  it  distributed  pretty  evenly  through  loose 
piston  rings,  worn  bearings  and  connections,  or  wasted 
in  overcoming  useless  friction  in  the  shaft  or  bear- 
ings out  of  line?  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  large 
proportion  of  the  power  after  it  is  produced  dissipated 
in  some  such  useless  way. 

6th.  Is  the  lubrication  what  it  should  be  at  all 
points?  Faulty  lubrication  always  means  needless  fric- 
tion, which  is  one  of  the  worst  machine  and  energy 
consumers  in  the  world.  Often  a  few  drops  of  oil 
more  per  minute  will  add  lo  to  20%  to  the  available 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  2};j 

power  by  preventing  the  cutting  of  a  shaft.  With  the 
gravity  system,  8  to  lo  drops  per  minute  are  required 
by  the  moderate  size  farm  engine.  This  number,  on 
account  of  the  larger  drops,  should  be  reduced  to  5 
or  6  per  minute  if  force  feed  is  used,  and  will  have 
to  be  increased  a  little  if  the  engine  is  air — instead  of 
water-cooled — on  account  of  the  higher  temperature. 

Three  or  four  drops  per  minute  for  the  crank  shaft 
bearings,  if  w^ith  gravity  feed,  should  be  enough,  the 
exact  amount  being  of  course  determined  by  appear- 
ances in  each  individual  case. 

When  w^e  consider  each  of  these  half-dozen  matters 
by  itself  we  are  apt  to  get  a  more  comprehensive  view 
of  things  than  when  we  try  to  scatter  our  attention 
over  too  much  territory  at  once. 

One  other  cause  for  lack  of  power  may  come  up  in 
the  cooling  system.  If  that  fails  for  any  reason  the 
engine  heats,  the  oil  burns  out,  the  rings  leak  com- 
pression, and  the  gas  may  expand  so  in  the  hot 
chamber  that  less  than  a  full  charge  is  inhaled  each 
time.  Any  or  all  of  these  might  easily  affect  the 
power  of  the  engine  appreciably. 

310.  Overheating. — When  an  engine  shows  a  ten- 
dency to  overheat  under  load,  the  job  in  hand  may 
sometimes  be  completed  by  giving  it  a  little  extra 
time  and  an  occasional  rest.  A  perfectly  Avorking 
engine  ought  to  run  under  load  continuously  from  one 
week's  end  to  the  other  if  necessary ;  but  nearly  all 
farm  work  may  be  adapted  without  great  loss  to  short 
runs  in  an  emergency,  and  by  that  means  the  engine 
kept  upon  the  job  without  injury. 

311.  Causes  of  Overheating. — Overheating  may  be 
the  result  of  faulty  construction ;  then,  perhaps  it  can- 
not be  overcome.  It  may  be  due  to  overload,  or  to 
some  other  form  of  mismanagement.     Dirt  may  have 


2sS         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

clogged  the  water  or  the  lubrication  system  in  some 
pipe  or  valve.  The  exhaust  valve  may  not  lift  enough 
or  the  exhaust  port  be  too  small ;  or'  the  same  result 
may  come  under  a  different  name  from  back  pres- 
sure in  the  muffler.  An  overdose  of  gasoline  will 
cause  excess  heat  and  a  late  spark  is  specially  trouble- 
some as  a  heat  producer  and  power  extinguisher  as 
well.  Nearly  all  of  these  difficulties  are  registered  in 
the  discharge  from  the  exhaust. 

312.  Other  Causes.— An  engine  that  has  once  been 
tested  on  a  full  load  without  overheating  has  elimi- 
nated from  the  possible  causes  faulty  construction. 
What  has  been  done  can  be  done  again.  With  a 
water-cooled  engine  the  trouble,  if  it  lies  there  at  all, 
IS  purely  mechanical,  similar  to  any  of  the  correspond- 
ing troubles  that  come  to  any  pump.  If  the  engine 
is  air  cooled  there  is  the  possibility  of  a  displaced  fan- 
blade,  or  the  current  may  not  be  directed  against  the 
air  jacket  around  the  cylinder;  or  very  possibly  some 
partition  near  by  is  interfering  with  the  ready  air 
supply. 

313.     Cooling  a  Hot  Engine.— If  the  trouble  is  not 
noticed  until  after  the  engine  is  very  hot  it  may  not 
be  safe  to  start  up  the  water  circulation  suddenly  until 
the  iron  has  had  a  chance  to  cool.     The  load  should 
be  removed  at  once,  but  if  the  engine  is  seen  to  drag 
it  may  be  unsafe  to  shut  down   entirely,  or  a  seized 
piston    may   result.      If   such    is   the    case,    keep    run- 
ning slowly,  with  the  greatest  spark  advance,  but  with 
the  fuel  cut  almost  off,  until  it  has  a  chance  to  cool 
so   lubrication   becomes   effective   again.     Watch   the 
temperature  carefully  during  the  continuance  of  these 
more  favorable  conditions;  then,  as  SQon  as  safe,  start 
up  the  cooling  circulation. 
314-     Speed  Variations.— A  certain  amount  of  speed 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         239 

variation  is  to  be  expected  on  account  of  the  power 
impulses  coming  in  the  shape  of  sudden  blows  rather 
than  by  steady  impact.  This  tendency  is  very  no- 
ticeable in  the  running  of  an  electric  generator  direct 
from  a  single-cylinder  four-cycle  engine,  which  is  not 
provided  w^ith  a  special  balance  wheel.  These  varia- 
tions are,  however,  normal  within  certain  limits,  after 
which  they  indicate  some  fault  in  the  engine  or  its 
management. 

315.  Suspecting  the  Governor.— Racing  and  then 
dying  way  below  normal  may  be  due  to  a  disarranged 
governor  or  to  one  the  springs  of  which  are  too  stifif 
to  respond  as  readily  as  they  should.  If  the  charges 
are  being  admitted  and  exploded  regularly,  do  not 
blame  the  governor.  If  several  charges  are  exploded 
without  missing  when  the  engine  runs  way  above 
normal  and  then  a  number  are  missed  after  it  has 
dropped  below,  the  chances  are  that  some  part  of  the 
governor  is  working  too  hard,  either  on  account  of 
a  stiff  spring,  or  a  rough  casting,  or  some  other  source 
of  excess  friction. 

316.  A  Lazy  Engine.— A  lazy  engine  is  pretty  cer- 
tain to  have  a  leak  in  the  valves  or  the  piston  rings 
or  the  spark  plug,  unless  the  ignition  is  at  fault.  In 
a  well  timed  engine  good  compression  may  be  con- 
sidered a  result  and,  if  it  fails,  a  leak  is  the  cause.  If 
every  charge  under  the  extreme  load  the  engine  will 
carry  is  being  fired  regularly  the  spark  is  all  right 
and 'nothing  is  left  to  suspect  very  seriously  except 
the  compression.  If  the  engine  still  runs  too  slow 
when  firing  every  charge  and  the  compression  seems 
all  right,  suspect  overload.  Throw  oft'  a  part  of  the 
load  and  note  whether  speed  is  increased  so  that  the 
governor  begins  cutting  out.  If  not,  there  is  some 
other  cause,  and  it  is   findable.     The   day  of  spooks 


240         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

and  witchery  has  gone  by.     Sometimes  a  leak  occurs 
from  the  water  jacket,  which  admits  water  or  steam 
.nto  the  combustion  chamber.    The  water-coo^  '    J" 
en,  and  the  lubrication  should  be  looked  after  at^onc 
as  there  may  be  a  threatened  seizing  of  the  piston' 
Heated  bearings  at  the  crank  shaft,  or  even  in' s  me 
o      he  driven  machinery,  may  slow  down  the  engine 
or  there  may  be  trouble  with  the  mixture.     The  im^ 
proper   admission   of  air  will    cause   irregular   spee^ 
rhis  IS  a  trouble  that  must  never  be  allowed  to  con 
tinue  witliout  hunting  out  the  cause.     The  tightenTg 
of  worn  bearings   may  i„   time  affect  the  alignment 
enough  to  cause  excessive  friction  and  heating     The 

are  normal,  may  be  the  most  affected  by  this 
317.     Pre-ignition.-Pre-ignition,  fortunately  for  the 

self  w  th  so  much  vigor  that  it  is  not  apt  to  be  long 

itf'.  '."'''"'"^  '^  *'"  "°^-'"  -ho  nieets  with 
t  for  the  first  time.     It  may  be  caused  bv  advancing 
the  spark  too  far,  so  that  the  power  impul'se  is  buried 
against  the  piston  before  it  has  quite  finished  its  com- 
pression   stroke;    then    it    is    driven    violently    back 
against  its  own  stored  energy.     Anything  like  burn- 
.ng  soot  or  failure  of  the  cooling  system,  or  anything 
which    permits    the    temperature    of   the    combustion 
chamber  to  reach  the  igniting  point  of  gasoline,  may 
cause  It,  or  an  attempt  to  run  on  advanced  spark  when 
an  excessive  load  has  crowded  the  speed  of  the  engine 
below  the  point  where  an  advanced  spark  can  be  used. 

and  v!it?  ''■°"\''^'='!-fi-"§^>  -'"ch  it  closely  resembles, 
and  wit  which  It  IS  often  confused,  in  that  pre-igni- 
.on  IS  the  result  of  some  igniting  influence  exerted 
too  eariy  in  the  engine  cycle,  while  back-firing  may 
and   may   not  be.     Often   the   latter   is   caused   by   a 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         241 

faulty  mixture  which  burns  so  slowly  that  the  interior 
of  tlie  combustion  chamber  is  still  a  mass  of  flames 
when  the  intake  valve  opens  to  receive  its  next  charge ; 
then  the  flame  flashes  back  along  the  intake  pipe,  fre- 
quently to  the  carburetor;  or  a  poorly  fitting  valve 
may  not  close  sufficiently  tight,  and  the  flame  rush 
back  Pre-ignition  is  accomplished  in  the  cyhnder, 
too;  while  back-firing  takes  place  in  the  intake  pipe, 
although  its  source  may  be  in  the  cyhnder. 

318.     Misfiring.— This  occurs  from  any  of  several 
causes  or  a  combination  of  them.     The  mixture  may 
be  faulty  and  fail  to  ignite,  or  some  defect  of  the  elec- 
tric  system   may  occasion   a  spark   that   is   not   hot 
enou-h.     Weak  batteries  or  faulty  insulation  or  foul 
spark  points,  anything  which  tends  to  reduce  the  spark 
intensity,    may    bring   about    misfiring,    especia  ly    a 
hio-h  speeds  or  if  the  timer  happens  to  be  slightly  out 
of  adjustment.     Misfiring  is   perhaps   more   frequent 
than  pre-ignition,  but  not  so  serious  in  its  results,     it 
wastes    the    charge    and    allows    considerable    speed 
fluctuation  and  slowing  down  of  the  engine,  but  it 
does   not  jeopardize   the  crank    shaft   and   piston   by 
hurling  its  energy  directly  against  the  energy  already 
developed.     Its  efl:ect  is  negative  almost  wholly,  in- 
stead of  a  positive  hindrance.  ^  _ 

319  Back-firing.-This  is  one  of  the  legitimate 
results  of  misfiring,  which  it  very  often  follows,  the 
unfired  charge  being  trapped  in  the  hot  muHler  and 
there  fired  into  the  open  air.  Perhaps  its  greatest  harm 
is  the  consumption  of  good  fuel  without  benefit,  but 
there  is  perhaps  no  other  engine  prank  more  terrify- 
ing to  the  amateur,  who  first  receives  a  fusillade  of 
these  startlingly  sharp  reports,  especially  if  two  or 
more  charges  happen  to  be  delivered  before  either  of 
them  is  ignited.     If  the  mixture  was  too  rich  to  burn 


242         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

well  in  the  cylinder  it  may,  on  being  discharged  into 
the  presence  of  more  air,  become  readily  combustible. 
It  also  frequently  occurs  when  the  spark  is  being  re- 
tarded before  stopping  the  engine. 

320.  Knocking. — Knocking,  rightly  enough,  sets 
the  operator  hunting  for  its  cause — frequently  quite 
in  the  wrong  direction.  Usually  it  means  that  some- 
thing serious  is  wrong,  such  as  a  broken  piston-pin, 
a  worn  cylinder,  or  worn  connecting  rod  bearings. 
Bad  lubrication  or  a  piston  threatening  to  seize  are 
other  possible  causes  that  demand  immediate  and 
rapid  attention.  Occasionally  a  certain  amount  of 
knocking  arises  from  a  tardily  fired  charge  or  some 
less  serious  cause,  but  the  occasions  are  so  many 
where  this  can  be  taken  as  a  most  alarming  symptom 
that  no  one  should  allow  a  knock  to  go  uninvesti- 
gated. 

321.  Pounding,  often  classed  with  knocking,  is 
only  an  aggravated  form  of  the  other  in  its  manifesta- 
tions, although  it  is  usually  caused  by  a  pre-ignited 
charge  being  hurled  against  an  ascending  piston,  and 
is  generally  due  to  an  over-advanced  spark. 

322.  Outside  Knocking. — Knocking  outside  the 
cylinder  is  less  difficult  to  locate,  though  it  demands 
immediate  attention.  Usually  it  means  some  purely 
mechanical  trouble  about  the  crank  shaft  or  its  bear- 
ings, things  not  at  all  exclusive  to  the  gasoline  engine, 
and  only  coming  to  it  with  a  little  more  severity  be- 
cause of  the  extra  force  that  is  behind  the  piston. 
Any  loose  shaft  may  occasion  it  more  or  less;  also 
occasionally  a  cylinder  loosened  from  its  base. 

323.  Summing  up  Common  Troubles. — In  general 
terms,  most  of  the  distinctly  characteristic  gasoline 
engine  troubles  may  be  subdivided  into  four  groups, 
as  follows: 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  243 

Faults  of  poor  mixture,  including  carburetor  faults, 
clogged  pipes,  cups,  nozzles,  screens,  water  in  the  gas- 
oline, clogged  valves  and  faulty  air  inlet. 

Faults  of  poor  ignition :  Weak  current,  short-cir- 
cuits, broken  circuits,  poor  spark  plugs,  worn  or  dirty 
points,  loose  wires  and  poor  connections,  broken-down 
coil,  poor  timing,  points  too  close  or  too  far  apart. 

Poor  compression :  Leaky  valves  or  piston  rings, 
broken  rings,  faulty  construction. 

Poor  delivery :  Poor  foundation,  poor  balance,  un- 
due friction,  due  to  failure  of  cooling  system  or  of 
lubrication,  bearings  untrue  or  out  of  alignment. 

324.  A  Bit  of  Parting  Advice. — Remember  always 
that  the  best  way  to  overcome  gasoline  engine  troubles 
is  to  prevent  them  by  taking  in  advance  of  the  trouble 
the  care  that  has  to  be  given  afterwards. 

When  trouble  comes  it  is  best,  unless  one  really 
knows  the  cause  from  its  nature,  to  look  for  some- 
thing simple  first,  the  empty  tank,  the  corroded  or  the 
open"  switch,  the  disconnected  wire. 

Do  not  be  too  ready  to  meddle  with  things  that  are 
working  all  right.  Carry  the  oil  can  and  the  cleaning 
rags  around  a  little  more,  and  leave  the  hammer  and 
the  monkey  Avrench  alone  unless  it  is  certain  they  are 
really  needed. 

In  making  adjustments,  especially  of  the  carburetor, 
expect  a  few  back-fires  and  have  the  room  well  ven- 
tilated, and  a  pail  or  two  of  sawdust  handy  in  case 
of  fire. 

Above  all,  when  things  go  wrong  do  not  get  excited. 
Take  things  cool  all  the  time,  but  take  them  to  pieces 
only  when  it  is  recjuired.  Remember,  that  there  are 
a  few  hundred  thousand  gasoline  engines  doing  good 
work  in  the  hands  of  all  kinds  of  people,  and  that  the 
burden  of  blame  before  the  engine  can  be  condemned 


244         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

is  with  the  user.  Barring  accidents  and  long  con- 
tinued wear,  the  only  trouble  that  ever  comes  to  the 
engine  comes  through  the  operator;  while  the  most 
frequent  source  of  trouble  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not 
understood. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
SELECTING  AND   OPERATING  A   GAS   ENGINE. 

325.  Selecting  the  Engine. — Perhaps  no  mistake  is 
more  common  among  purchasers  of  the  first  gasoline 
engine  than  the  determination  to  get  the  best,  unless 
it  is  the  effort  to  get  the  cheapest.  There  is  no  best 
for  all  purposes;  nor  can  the  most  experienced  en- 
gineer, after  having  tested  different  standard  engines 
side  by  side  for  months,  always  decide  which  one  he 
likes  best  even  for  his  own  use.  Almost  any  engine 
will  give  entire  satisfaction  so  long  as  everything  runs 
well.  When  trouble  comes  the  engine  is  apt  to  be 
criticized,  whether  it  is  to  blame  or  not.  The  first 
step,  then,  in  selecting  a  good  engine,  is  to  decide, 
not  which  is  the  best,  but  what  particular  place  and 
work  it  is  wanted  for.  The  question  must  be  answered 
wholly  out  of  the  farm,  from  the  kind  of  work  it  is 
to  do. 

326.  Style  Required. — For  stationary  purposes,  the 
horizontal  engine  requires  more  floor  space  than  the 
upright,  and  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  high  speed.  Be- 
cause of  its  broader  base,  it  is  firmer  under  a  heavy 
belt  pull  than  the  upright,  the  piston  and  cylinder  are 
more  accessible,  and  it  can  be  bolted  more  rigidly  to 
its  foundations.  Its  lower  center  of  gravity,  too,  ren- 
ders it  more  solid  for  portable  purposes,  and  in  most 
cases  it  will  probably  give  the  best  results  in  larger 
than  four  or  five  H.  P.  sizes.     For  the  smaller  engines 

245 


246         The  Gasoline  ExNgine  on  the  Farm 

intended  specially  for  extreme  portability,  such  as  for 
doing  the  choring  and  hand  work  about  the  house  and 
barn,  the  upright  has  the  advantage  of  lighter  weight 
for  a  given  horse-power  both  on  account  of  the  liglfter 
frame  and  because  of  its  higher  speed.  They  are 
also  more  economical  in  floor  space,  and  in  the  smaller 
sizes  seem  to  be  preferred  by  purchasers  and  manu- 
facturers alike.  They  have  some  advantage  in  the 
matter  of  friction,  a  more  important  consideration  in 
the  small  than  in  the  larger  engine,  where  there  is  a 
greater  likelihood  of  margin  in  power. 


Fig. 


-A    'J'ypical    Horizontal   Gasoline    Engine. 


327.  The  Best  Size. — Every  large  or  even  moderate 
size  farm  needs  two  engines;  one  to  do  the  heavier 
work  like  threshing,  wood  sawing,  feed  grinding,  hay 
baling,  etc.,  and  another  of  from  one  to  three  horse- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  247 

power  capacity  for  economical  use  in  doing  those 
numerous  bits  of  drudgery  that  will  save  the  man 
and  woman.  As  a  rule  the  man  who  buys  a  two-  or 
three-horse  engine  now  will  put  in  more  machinery 
in  a  year  or  two  which  may  require  more  power ;  then 
he  will  probably  regret  having  purchased  so  small  an 
engine,  but  it  is  well  for  him  to  remember  that  he 
needs  the  small  one  worse  than  any  other.  For  the 
heavier  work  he  can,  if  he  has  to,  get  along  with  a 
hired  engine,  by  adapting  his  heavier  work  to  longer 
runs  while  the  light  engine  is  used  perhaps  several 
times  every  day  in  doing  that  back-breaking  drudgery 
that  is  killing  more  men  and  women  daily  on  the  farm 
than  anything  else,  but  that  would  still  be  done  in 
the  old  way  in  spite  of  the  larger  engine.  Only  the 
small  power  engine  fits  into  this  work  with  either 
economy  or  convenience.  How  many,  for  instance, 
have  their  buildings  so  arranged  that  it  would  be  con- 
venient or  economical  to  use  an  eight  or  ten  horse- 
power engine  for  pumping  a  couple  of  buckets  of  water 
or  running  the  churn  or  the  cream  separator  in  a 
small  family  dairy  for  four  or  five  cows?  It  is  just 
such  tasks  as  these,  however,  that  are  shortening  the 
lives  of  hundreds  of  people  on  the  farm ;  not  the  hard 
work  so  much  as  the  unvarying  hard  drudgery. 

The  larger  engine  is  u^^ually  purchased  to  save  the 
farm  team  or  to  increase  working  capacity.  It  is  the 
small  engine  that  saves  the  man  himself  and  his  fam- 
ily. It  will  be  used  for  a  greater  variety  of  work  and 
more  continuously  than  the  larger  engine,  and  the 
man  himself  will  derive  more  direct  benefits  from  it. 

328.  A  Plea  for  the  Small  Engine. — It  seems  a 
little  like  advising  a  man  regarding  the  size  of  his 
hat  to  tell  him  how  large  an  engine  he  needs, 
the     advice     in     both     instances     being     the     same : 


248         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

get    the    size    that    fits    the    place.      In    farm    work, 
though,  the  power  required  has  an  unusual  range,  and 
when  one  engine   only  is  to   be  purchased  the  ques- 
tion seems  to  be  one  between  a  life  of  greater  ease 
for  both  the  farmer  and  his  wife  and  family,  or  more 
extended  field  operations.     Perhaps  the  best  solution 
would  be,  say,  a  one  or  two  horse-power  engine  for 
doing  the  every  day  farm  drudgery,  and  a  tractor  for 
the  farm.     AVith  the  latter  all  such  tasks  as  thresh- 
ing, hay  baling,  wood  cutting  could  be  done,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  farmer  and  the  housewife  would 
be  relieved  of  more  real  work  and  care  through  the 
engine  of  smaller  size. 


Fig.  79-— Easy  Work  for  One  and  One-half  Horse-power  Gray 

Engine. 

329.— Power  Required  for  Various  Farm  Tasks.— 

For  most  of  the  work  about  the  house  and  dairy  a 
one  or  two  horse-power  engine  will  be  ample.  This 
will  pump  water  in  moderate  quantities,  separate  the 
milk,  churn,  run  the  washing  machine  and  wringer, 
spray  the  trees,  and  water  the  flower  bed  and  garden,' 
wash  the  windows,  including  those  of  the  upper  story,' 
run  a  dish-washer  or  a  vacuum  sweeper,  supply  a 
modern  bath  room  and  all  rooms  of  the  house  with 
running  water,  run  the  shop  lathe,  grindstone,  emery 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  249 

wheel,  rip  saw  and  small  cut-off,  wash  buggies,  white- 
wash the  outbuildings,  ten  times  faster  than  can  be 
done  by  hand,  sprinkle  the  lawn  and  a  few  other  sim- 
ilar tasks  that  on  the  average  farm  are  done  at  the 
price  of  aching  backs  or  not  at  all ;  while  in  its  spare 
time  the  same  industrious  little  worker  would,  with 
the  aid  of  a  storage  battery,  accumulate  enough  elec- 
trical energy  to  give  the  farm  buildings  every  night 


Fig.  80. — Corn  Sheller  Easily  Operated  by  One  Horse-power. 

the  same  lighting  conveniences  enjoyed  in  the  city 
residence  at  very  little  cost. 

With  a  three  to  five  H.  P.,  the  farm  supply  of  wood 
could  be  sawed,  the  feed  ground,  hay  and  straw  and 
stalks  run  through  the  cutter,  grain  and  hay  elevated, 
corn  shelled,  stock  watered,  and  feed  conveyors 
handled  almost  without  hand  work.  An  eight  to  ten 
horse-power  would  do  practically  all  of  the  heavy 
work  a  stationary  engine  could  be  made  to  do  upon  a 
farm;  such  tasks  as  threshing,  ensilage  cutting,  heavy 
grinding,  corn  husking.  For  a  tractor,  less  than  twelve 
horse  would  hardly  be  advisable,  while  for  real  satis- 
factory work  at  the  plow  and  harrow  on  say  a  200- 
acre  farm,  less  than  a  twenty  horse  could  not  be  ad- 
vised. For  smaller  farms,  tractors  are  now  made  of 
half  that  power  that  will  do  good  work  with  the  plow. 

For  attaching  to  the  table  or  rear  of  machine  for 


250         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

binding  grain,  one  of  the  light  three  H.  P.  now  made 
is  just  the  thing. 

The  power  required  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  material  delivered  to  the  machine,  and 
a  great  deal  more  on  the  condition  of  the  machine  itself 
and  of  the  engine ;  in  other  words,  upon  the  care  of  the 
man  who  runs  it.  An  engine  that  is  big  enough  to 
do  the  work   under  most  unfavorable   conditions   is, 


a 


Fig.  8i.— Simple  Prony  Brake  Test. 

of  course,  powerful  enough  for  all  the  others,  while 
one  that  will  come  up  to  the  estimate  only  on  the 
supposition  that  the  material  will  be  delivered  in  rea- 
sonably good  shape  may  fail  if  the  conditions  are 
extremely  bad. 

There  is,  of  course,  danger  of  having  a  small  engine 
overloaded  in  a  short  time  if  it  is  installed  for  gen- 
eral farm  work,  but  for  really  saving  the  work  and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         251 

sparing  the  health  of  the  man  and  of  his  wife  the  small 
engine  is  ideal.  It  is  also  best  to  learn  with ;  then  it 
can  be  turned  over  to  the  boys  to  give  them  a  new 
interest  in  farming,  and  a  greater  love  for  farm  life 
than  all  the  grindstones  in  the  world  could  ever  do 

unaided. 

330.     What  Horse-power   Means.— Horse-power   is 
a  somewhat  arbitrary  measure  of  energy,  same  as  the 


Pic_  82.— Another  Type  of  Prony  Brake. 

foot  or  the  mile  is  a  measure  of  distance,  though  it  is 
founded  upon  the  more  definite  supposition  that  a  fair 
load  for  an  average  horse  would  be  the  equivalent  of 
a  lift  in  one  minute  of  33.000  pounds  a  height  ot  one 
foot.  Since  this  unit  of  energy  measure  has  been  gen- 
erally adopted  as  a  standard,  it  is  quite  as  accurate  for 
purposes  of  comparison  as  though  an  actual  horse  had 
really  been  sent  out  to  make  the  lifting  test. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  horse-power  in  common 
use,  however,  or  rather  the  standard  of  measurement 
is  taken  in  several  different  ways,  no  two  of  which 


252         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

mean  exactly  the  same  thing  in  amount  of  work  actu- 
ally done.  As  some  machine  men  have  been  known 
to  take  advantage  of  this  while  others  have  certain 
standards  of  their  own  which  are  recognized  generally 
111  the  measurement  of  certain  kinds  of  ener-y  it  is 
necessary  to  understand  the  comparative  value  of  each 
m  order  to  know  what  horse-power  really  means. 

331.  Various  Kinds  of  Horse-power  Defined.— 
Actual  horse-power  is  the  horse-power  really  devel- 
oped, as  proved  by  trial. 

Brake  horse-power  is  the  power  shown  by  a  friction 
brake,  the  Prony  brake  being  a  favorite  means  of  meas- 
unng.  This  is  not  scientifically  accurate,  but  is  near 
enough  to  answer  all  practical  purposes.  Brake  horse- 
power represents  the  amount  of  working  energy  de- 
livered at  the  belt. 

Effective  horse-power  is  the  same  as  brake. 
Indicated  horse-power  is  the  measure  of  the  power 
developed  in  the  cylinder,  and  is,  of  course,  consider- 
ably m  excess  of  the  actual  energy  delivered.  It  is 
figured  out  by  multiplying  the  area  of  the  piston  head 
m  niches  by  the  length  of  stroke  in  feet  and  the  prod- 
uct first  by  the  number  of  strokes  per  minute  and  then 
by  the  average  effective  pressure  on  the  piston  in 
pounds  during  each  power  stroke.  The  result,  being 
m  foot-pounds,  is  divided  by  33,000  for  the  indicated 
horse-power.  This  is  the  measure  upon  which  all 
formula  for  computing  horse-power  from  piston  area 
are  based.  The  brake  horse-power  is  equal  to  the 
mdicated  horse-power  after  we  have  subtracted  from 
the  latter  the  energy  lost  in  friction,  passive  resist- 
ance, etc. 

Nominal  horse-power  is  defined  as  the  horse-power 
calculated  by  a  conventional  and  usuallv  incorrect 
method  of  rating,   as  that  based  on   the  area  of  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  253 

piston  It  has  so  far  lost  any  fixed  meaning  it  ever 
mav  have  had  that  it  is  of  little  hnportanee  exeeptmg 
for' the  fact  that  it  is  still  used  as  a  commercial  term 
for  selling  engines  and  confusing  purchasers. 

Tractive  horse-power,  owing  to  the  rapid  advance- 
ment of  the  traction  engine,  must  now  be  admitted  as 
,  measure  of  engine  efficiency.  It  represents  the  work- 
ino-  energy  delivered  at  the  draw-bar:  that  is  the  belt 
energy  less  whatever  power  is  absorbed  m  the  trans- 
mission gearing  and  the  moving  of  its  own  weigh^ 
This  usually  amounts  to  between  50%  and  60%  of  the 
brake  horse-power,  though  one  tractor  now  on  the 
market  claims  a  draw-bar  energy  of  Sofo. 

332      Purchasing     Horse-power.-With     even     the 
most  careful  attention  to  the  relative  meanings  of  these 
different  ratings,  purchasing  horse-power  is  stUl  some- 
what an  elastic  operation.    Many  engines,   -  m  tance 
which  would  operate  for  an  hour  or  so  at  f""  latec 
capacity  would  by  that  time  have  become  so  hot  that 
they  could  not  be  run  at  all.     While  most  farm  work 
is  done  on  comparatively  short  runs,  an  engine  should, 
none  the  less,  be  capable  of  maintaining  for  an  indefi- 
nite period  the  full  rated  capacity  for  which  it  was 
sold.     Probably  no  gasoline  engine  can  develop  more 
than    90%    of    its    full    possibilities    and    maintain    it 
steadily  for  an  entire  day  ;  hence  it  is  necessary  that  an 
engine  to  be  honestly  rated,  have  at  least  10%  reserv 
energy   above  its   rating.      Many  of   the  best   engine 
makers  now  supply  this  reserve;  some  of  them,  mtic 
more.    In  buying  a  cheap  engine,  though,  or  one  f  om 
an  unknown  firm,  it  is  well  to  keep  this  po.n    m  mincl 
In  justice  to  the  gasoline  engine  before  it  1.  made 
to  suffer  from  comparison  with  steam  engine  or  actual 
horse  ratings,  we  must  give  fair  consideration  to  the 
subject  of  overload. 


254         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

333.     The  Overload  as  Affecting  Ratings.— An  ac- 

tua  horse,  under  the  lash  of  a  brutal  driver,  can  be 
made  to  develop  several  horse-power  for  a  few  min- 
utes and  then  perhaps  drop  dead  the  next.  A  good 
steam  engme,  with  an  equal  or  heavier  rated  boiler  at 
Its  highest  rated  pressure  and  a  hot  fire  back  of  it 
might  be  able  to  handle  an  overload  of  40%  or  even 
50%  for  a  little  while;  then  its  capacity  might  drop 
below  normal  until  steam  was  raised  again  unless  in 
the  meantime  it  had  the  assistance  of  a  m.ost  strenuous 
and  wdling  fireman. 

The  gasoline  engine  will  take  up  the  load  that  it  was 
built  to  carry,  less  a  small  margin  t)f  under-rating  al- 
lowed  for  unfavorable  conditions,  and  will  carry  it  con- 
stantly without  any  help  from  anyone.  Beyond  a  small 
margin,   no  amount  of  urging  will  tempt  it  into  in- 
creasing  its    exertions   for    even    a    short   time-    and 
abuse.  It  It  has  any  effect  at  all,  will  probablv  retire 
it  from  the  job.     It  has   little  reserve  force  back  of 
It  to  draw  on,  and  that  little  may  be  needed  in  over- 
coming the  unfavorable  conditions  under  which  it  may 
be  working.     The  statement  sometimes  made  that  a 
steam   engine   will   outpull   a   gasoline   engine   of  the 
same  rating  is  not  true  if  the  steam  engine  is  worked 
in  accordance  with  its  permanent  capacity,  as  the  -as- 
oline  engine  is.     If  a  15  horse-power  boiler  is  set  be- 
hind a  10  horse  steam  engine  and  steam  raised  to  the 
point  of  blowing  off,  with  the  hottest  of  fires  in  the 
grates,  and  a  good  fireman  doing  his  best  to  make  it 
hotter,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  engine  carry- 
ing an  overload  of  several  horse-power  so  long  as  the 
stored  steam,  the  overcharge  of  fire,  and  the  energy 
of  the  fireman  hold  out.     The  gasoline  engine  is  self- 
contained,  and  depends  upon  itself.  It  has  the  strength 
for  even  a  greater  overload,  for  its  shafts  and  bear- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  255 

ings  are  heavier,  but  it  has  no  stored-up  or  borrowed 
energy  to  help  it  along.  Whatever  power  it  is  re- 
quired to  use  it  develops  and  uses  as  the  occasion  re- 
quires, and,  if  it  has  no  reserve  power  to  help  it  along 
on  overloads,  neither  has  it  a  lot  of  reserved  and 
wasted  energy  that  was  not  used  when  an  overload 
was  not  required.  When  we  consider  that  overload- 
ing any  engine  is  an  unwarranted  strain  upon  its 
structural  strength,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  engine  that 
can  be  depended  upon  to  develop  its  full  rating  stead- 
ily, without  reserve  power  and  without  wasted  power, 
has  the  best  of  the  argument. 

334.  The  Question  of  Weight. — The  question  of 
weight  is  more  a  problem  of  individual  requirement 
than  of  engine  necessity.  There  are  places  where, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  heavy  engine  has  a  de- 
cided advantage.  The  massive  frame  absorbs  consid-^ 
erable  vibration  and,  like  the  heavy  man  on  the  lever, 
does  some  work  to  better  advantage.  There  is  also 
less  strain  on  the  engine  because  it  is  distributed 
through  a  greater  mass  of  metal. 

335-  Where  the  Light  Engine  Wins. — On  the  other 
hand,  one  of  the  greatest  arguments  in  favor  of  the 
gasoline  engine  is  its  supreme  portability;  and  every 
pound  of  unnecessary  weight  added  thereto  is  a  de- 
parture from  one  of  its  great  advantages.  Weight 
alone  is  not  always  strength,  not  unless  it  is  put  where 
greater  strength  is  needed  than  the  light  engine  pos- 
sesses. The  old-fashioned  binders  were  immensely 
heavier  than  the  light  steel  structures  of  to-day,  yet 
no  one  will  say  that  they  were  as  strong.  Often  the 
light  machine  indicates  that  it  is  a  better  balanced 
machine,  more  carefully  planned  out  and  less  cum- 
bered by  unnecessary  weight.  Undoubtedly  the  heavy 
fly  wheel  and  the  corresponding  machinery  back  of  it 


256         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

supply  a  greater  amount  of  stored  up  energy;  that 
is,  the  momentum  is  greater  to  carry  the  engine  over 
sudden  loads,  or  the  idle  strokes,  but  for  much  of 
the  every-day  farm  work  the  light  engine  is  decidedly 
preferable.  For  strictly  stationary  purposes  the  heavy 
engine  bed  and  massive  balance  wheel  absorb  much 
of  the  destructive  vibration,  and  add  rigidity  to  the 
engine  providing  the  weight  is  properly  distributed. 
The  present-day  tendency  though  is  toward  lighter  en- 
gines, not  so  much  on  account  of  the  price  as  because 
of  their  greater  convenience.  Engines  that  weigh  200 
pounds  or  less  and  develop  three  horse-power  can  be 
used  in  many  places  to  far  better  advantage  than  a 
heavier  engine  could.  In  tractor  engines  w^eight  has 
a  greater  significance,  the  tractive  power  of  the  wheels 
having  a  direct  relation  with  the  weight  which  holds 
them  down. 

336.  Simplicity.— Always,  when  simplicity  is  ob- 
tained through  a  skillful  placing  of  parts,  the  engine 
is  more  durable  and  easier  managed,  besides  requir- 
ing less  energy  for  its  own  propulsion.  When  it  re- 
sults from  the  omission  of  important  details,  we  have 
to  consider  whether  the  result  obtained  will  lose  more 
in  efficiency  than  we  have  gained  in  mechanical  econ- 
omy. The  engine  should  have  parts  enough  to  insure 
good  work,  but  those  added  for  show  alone  should  be 
discarded,  and  even  the  value  of  the  conveniences 
should  always  be  weighed  against  the  extra  parts  they 
require.  It  never  pays  to  curtail  to  a  material  degree 
the  usefulness  of  the  engine  for  the  sake  of  saving  a 
few  extra  parts  or  a  little  in  price  and  weight.  Neither 
should  we  choose  an  engine  cumbered  with  a  lot  of 
attachments  that  are  not  needed  for  our  work  and 
that  only  render  the  task  of  taking  care  of  the  engine 
a   little  more   complicated.     On   a   farm   where  hired 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  257 

help  is  kept  we  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  the 
engine  ought  to  be  so  simple  that  the  most  inexperi- 
enced farm  hand  can  soon  learn  to  operate  it  under 
ordinary  conditions,  while  it  should  not  be  beyond 
the  boys  of  the  farm  to  fathom  its  management  under 
any  conditions.  So  long  as  kept  within  the  bounds  of 
continued  efficiency,  simplicity  means  freedom  from 
trouble  for  the  novice. 

337.  The  Price. — Price  sometimes  gets  greater  con- 
sideration than  it  deserves.  We  get  about  what  we 
pay  for,  usually,  but  in  the  purchase  of  an  engine  it  is 
well  to  consider  whether  we  really  need  all  that  we 
get  or  whether  some  of  the  price  is  being  expended 
upon  things  of  negative  value.  Quality,  experience  in 
engine  building,  good  workmanship,  and  good  mate- 
rial are  all  worth  paying  for.  Expensive  clerks  and 
salesmen,  big  commercial  splurges,  are  not  unless  the 
increased  sales  they  bring  enable  the  manufacturer  to 
give  better  quality  on  a  closer  margin  of  profit.  Al- 
ways it  is  the  purchaser  who  has  to  pay  the  manu- 
facturer's bills,  but  he  can  only  judge  of  them  to  a  lim- 
ited extent,  and  when  they  represent  a  policy  that  is 
specially  aggressive. 

Continued  improvements  represent  a  progressive 
spirit.  Excessive  changes  every  season  may  represent 
designs  that  have  not  been  w^orking  out  right  or  ex- 
periments which  may  be  more  costly  than  beneficial. 

It  is  a  good  idea  for  the  prospective  engine  buyer 
to  read  and  study  the  catalogues  of  a  good  many  man- 
ufacturers, not  only  for  the  suggestion  he  will  get 
in  the  selection  of  an  engine  for  his  purpose,  but  be- 
cause in  this  way  he  will  finally  get  at  something  like 
a  normal  price ;  then  when  an  agent  asks  him  much 
above  or  much  below  this  figure  he  will  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  find  out  why.     It  is  well,  too,  for  everyone  to 


258  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

remember  that  the  ''terms"  of  30  days'  trial  offered 
by  many  engine  firms  are  of  little  practical  value 
except  possibly  a  means  of  determining  whether  a  cer- 
tain size  is  large  enough  to  do  the  work  required  of 
it.  So  far  as  general  engine  merit  is  concerned,  any 
engine  that  will  run  at  all  will  run  for  thirty  days 
without  showing  much  wear.  Almost  any  engine  sent 
out  can  be  made  to  run  quite  well  by  an  expert,  while 
a  novice  would  hardly  be  accustomed  enough  to  his 
engine  in  that  length  of  time  to  give  it  a  fair  trial. 

338.  Adaptability. — This  is  of  more  importance 
than  some  phases  of  the  price  consideration  or  alluring 
''terms."  The  cream  separator  needs  a  steadier  run- 
ning engine  than  the  hay  work  hoist  or  the  pump  re- 
quires. The  light,  air-cooled  cylinder  could  stand 
work  that  was  cut  into  one  or  two  hour  periods,  and 
not  be  suitable  for  a  steady  pull  under  full  load  all 
day.  There  is  a  record  of  one  engine  that  had  not 
made  good  under  certain  conditions,  that  nevertheless, 
when  nearly  submerged  in  a  cellarful  of  water,  pa- 
tiently pumped  itself  and  the  cellar  dry,  a  feat  that 
would  have  been  too  much  for  many  a  sturdier  en- 
gine. 

339.  Other  Considerations. — Repair  economy  is  al- 
ways a  feature  worth  paying  something  for,  and  the 
engine  made  by  a  responsible  house  near  home  is 
worth  several  dollars  more  than  one  sent  out  by  an 
institution  about  the  stability  of  which  nobody  knows, 
and  which  at  best  is  hundreds  of  miles  away,  with  a 
heavy  freight  rate  between.  Other  things  being 
nearly  equal,  the  engine  with  a  local  representative 
can  be  kept  in  working  order  better  and  cheaper  than 
one  that  can  never  receive  a  supervising  word  from 
one  of  its  own  people. 

Ease  of  adjustment  is  specially  important  on  farms 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  259 

where  hired  help  is  kept  and  engine  experts  hard  to 

find.  , 

Some  engines  save  enough  fuel  in  a  season  to  make 
up  for  a  few  dollars  difference  in  first  cost.  The  pur- 
chase price  is  an  investment ;  the  upkeep,  an  expense. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  choice  between  the  two.  A  pint  of 
gasoline  per  horse-power  hour  is  a  liberal  allowance 
of  fuel  for  some  engines,  while  others  have  been  known 
to  more  than  double  this  amount,  while  there  are  a 
few  that  can  reduce  it. 

340.     Testing  an  Engine.— Every   engme   sent  out 
from  the  shops  is  supposed  to  have  been  tested,  but 
shop  conditions  are  very  different  from  actual  work 
in   the   field.     A   reasonable   test    should   mclude    the 
same  character  of  work  the  engine  will  be  used  for, 
and  under  similar  conditions.     If  wanted  for  electric 
lio-ht  work  and  the  plant  has  not  yet  been  mstalled 
hitch  the  engine  to  something  that  will  show   speed 
variations  readily,  and  run  it  for  several  hours  on  a 
steady  pull.     Part  of  an  engine's,  test  should  be  un- 
der  a  full   load   and  part   of   it   at   considerably    less. 
A  loaded   engine   sometimes   develops   characteristics 
such  as  heating,  which  it  would  not  do  running  empty, 
but  the  loaded  engine  will  be  run  as  a  rule  at  a  lower 
percentage    of    fuel    expenditure.      Wood    sawing    is 
rather  a  trying  test  as  the  strain  is  so  intermittent 
but  that  will  not  bring  out  a  propensity  to  heat,     i  hat 
requires  a  steady  pull  at  full  load.  ^ 

341.  Being  Fair  with  Engine  and  Agent.— Be  fair 
with  the  engine  and  the  agent,  though.  A  new  en- 
gine is  never  in  condition  to  stand  the  run  without 
heating  that  it  could  after  the  bearings,  rmgs  and 
cylinder  walls  had  seen  a  little  service.  It  is  not  fair 
to  put  it  to  the  last  strain,  nor  to  subject  it  to  any 
strain  which  is  not  a  part  of  regular  work.     The  de- 


26o         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

liberate  effort  to  stall  the  new  engine  or  in  some  way 
force  it  to  show  a  weakness  that  is  not  a  part  of  its 
factory  inheritance  is  neither  good  business  nor  good 
intelligence.  If  an  expert  is  there  to  install  the  en- 
gine, do  not  have  a  big  crew  of  hostile  men  and  a  lot 
of  work  piled  up  in  his  face.  Plan  to  give  him  all  the 
chance  in  the  world  to  get  the  engine  into  good  work- 
ing order  rather  than  to  get  a  lot  of  wood  sawed,  or 
furnish  amusement  for  the  neighborhood.  Do  not 
undertake  anything  that  will  keep  you  too  busy  to 
receive  and  think  about  his  instructions.  Do  not  keep 
him  too  busy  to  give  them.  Have  plenty  of  mate- 
rial handy  for  a  reasonable  test,  with  a  man  or  two 
to  assist  him  if  he  needs  them.  Let  him  do  the  test- 
ing, and  the  helpers  all  the  other  work,  while  you 
watch  him  and  the  engine.  If  you  are  sincere  in  want- 
ing to  buy  an  engine,  you  want  it  to  be  a  success ;  give 
it  a  fair  chance  to  be,  and  give  yourself  a  fair  chance 
to  see  how  it  can  be  made  one.  After  he  has  had  it 
working  nicely  for  some  time  get  him  to  shut  down 
and  watch  you  run  it.  Power  and  efficiency  curves 
are  worth  a  lot  to  the  engine  designer.  An  hour  or  so 
of  practical  field  work  with  a  practical  man  is  worth 
a  great  deal  more  to  you,  and  be  sure  the  average  ex- 
pert will  exert  himself  a  great  deal  more  to  help  you 
if  you  help  him  by  being  reasonable. 

342.  When  the  Agent  Does  Not  Come. — Sometimes 
no  agent  or  expert  is  sent.  In  that  case  the  engine 
generally  comes  crated,  and  set  up  ready  to  run.  The 
first  thing  to  unpack  is  the  instruction  book ;  take  it 
to  the  house  and  study  it  until  the  next  day.  In  re- 
moving the  crate,  be  careful  with  the  hammer.  Some 
parts  of  the  engine  are  made  to  stand  hard  knocks ; 
but  learn  which  first.  A  half  day  spent  in  washing  it 
off   thoroughly    with    turpentine    will    be    well    spent 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  261 

for  two  reasons.  There  will  be  more  or  less  grit  about 
it  that  may,  if  at  once  started,  be  drawn  into  the  cyl- 
inder, so  it  really  needs  the  thorough  cleaning.  Then 
as  the  work  is  done  each  part  is  likely  to  be  located, 
studied  and  compared  with  the  description  in  the  in- 
struction books.  At  the  end  (not  the  beginning)  of 
that  time  would  be  most  suitable  for  marking  the 
timer  and  similar  adjustments  that  are  not  already 
marked.  After  the  cleaning  is  done,  oil  carefully  and 
hand  crank,  again  studying  the  different  parts  in 
motion. 

Before  starting  under  its  own  power,  fasten  se- 
curely to  the  floor  or  some  solid  foundation.  No  en- 
gine can  do  its  best  work  while  hopping  around 
loosely.  Run  empty  for  balance  of  the  day,  and  note 
carefully  the  exact  consumption  of  gasoline  and  oil. 
Never  start  an  engine  standing  over  a  spot  where  gas- 
oline has  been  spilled.  If  the  engine  should  race  it 
might  back-fire  and  cause  trouble.  After  getting  some- 
what acquainted  with  it,  turn  off  the  gasoline,  feed 
slowly  until  the  place  is  found  where  it  will  develop 
its  full  power  and  where  further  reduction  decreases 
it. 

343.  Turning  on  the  Load. — Perhaps  you  have  seen 
the  claim  that  "the  engine  runs  itself."  After  run- 
ning it  empty  for  a  while,  to  prove  that  it  does,  it 
is  time  to  find  out  what  else  it  will  run.  Hitch  it 
first  to  some  empty  machine  and  turn  on  the  load 
gradually,  watching  closely.  Let  it  carry  a  fair  load 
then  for  several  hours,  but  on  the  first  sign  of  heat- 
ing above  normal,  shut  down.  Once  cutting  begins, 
it  is  very  hard  to  overcome.  Do  not  condemn  the 
engine  for  a  little  heating  until  paint  and  all  rough- 
ness have  been  worn  down.  Above  all,  do  not  begin 
trying  it  out  on  overloads  until  the  superfluous  paint 


262         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm. 

is  taken  off,  and  your  knowledge  how  to  run  it  put 
on.  Nothing  is  harder  on  an  engine  than  to  stall  it 
down,  as  the  advanced  spark  throws  full  force  of  the 
explosion  against  the  engine  for  the  last  few  strokes. 
Do  not  give  it  a  taste  of  full  load  the  first  run.  No 
skilled  machinist  would  think  of  doing  that  with  a  new 
lathe  or  new  machine  of  any  kind.  The  first  day  he 
accomplishes  little  real  work  w4th  it;  just  works  it 
into  harness  gradually,  and  watches  it  too  closely  for 
any  little  troubles  to  have  time  for  much  work.  If 
the  troubles  come  he  tries  to  help  it  overcome  them. 
Often  he  does  not  allow  it  to  carry  a  full  load  for  two 
or  three  da3^s.  When  giving  the  engine  its  first  run, 
shut  down  frequently  and  examine,  to  see  if  it  is 
heating  beyond  what  it  ought  to  and  if  the  parts, 
particularly  the  cylinder,  are  being  oiled.  Watch  all 
the  bearings,  and  be  careful  that  none  of  the  nuts  jar 
loose.  Make  no  changes  in  the  adjustments  when  run- 
ning all  right,  but  study  out  what  you  would  do  if 
this  or  that  went  wrong,  and  why,  before  it  does  go 
wrong;  then  try  and  find  out  from  the  instruction 
book  or  some  one  who  knows  whether  you  are  right, 
and,  if  not,  why  not.  Do  not  take  the  advice  of  any 
one  as  the  last  w^ord  in  engine  culture,  though.  The 
man  who  thinks  he  knows  all  there  is  to  know  about 
the  management  of  engines  would  do  well  to  wait  a 
few  days,  for  he  has  a  lesson  coming  to  him.  If  he 
realized  that,  he  would  think  the  other  fellow  might 
be  like  him  and  not  trust  too  implicitly  to  all  he  said. 
344.  The  Outfit. — When  buying  an  engine  some  ex- 
plicit understanding  should  be  had  as  to  what  it  in- 
cludes. There  are  some  outfits  being  advertised  at  a 
low  price  which  include  little  but  the  bare  engine. 
Tank,  connections,  pipe,  batteries,  spark  plug,  etc., 
have  all  to  be  bought  afterwards.     Some  outfits  in- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         263 

elude  part  of  these  but  not  a  carburetor.  Others  in- 
c  de  all  that  is  necessary,  even  a  magneto  belt  pul- 
:  and  all  connections  ready  to  turn  the  wheel  over 
and  start  All  of  these  matters  should  be  arranged  by 
a"reement  beforehand  or  they  are  likely  to  arrange  a 

'^'^f  ^krndrnd' Engine.-A  second-hand  engine 
i/ga^erally  a  bargain  for  buyer  or  seller;  the  question 
is    which?     Anyone  purchasing  an  engine  so  far  re- 
;;  -ed  from  the  dealer's  guarantee  is  justified  in  ask- 
"     a  good  many  questions.     Why  is  f  be>ng  sold? 
'said  to  be  "too  light."  just  what  did  it  fail  to  do 
and  what  did  it  do?     Look  closely  tor  wear  at  the 
b  arings.  particularly  if  a  two-cycle:  also  to  the  con- 
nec   ng    od,  and  all  the  cams  and  their  rolers.     The 
bearings  may  be  replaced  with  a  little  babbiU  met  1 , 
the  cams  cannot  be.    Test  the  '^-"P'^f  ^'°\*".'  ^ '  "  f^ 
if  poor,  try  and  make  out  whether  the  leak  is  at  the 
park  plug  or  the  rings.     Hand  crank   for  this  test, 
afd  tur'n  off  all  lubrication  in  order  to  find  out  whether 
it   is   the   rings   or  the   oil   that   is  holding      Notice 
whether  the  valves  are  pitted  or  if  they  have  been 
reground  until  they  are  almost  buried  in  their  seats_ 
If  the  spark  is  a  little  weak  test  the  connections  and 
the  coil;  then  the  batteries.     If  the  fault  is  here  fig- 
ure on  an  expense  of  about  $1.50  to  "-enew  them.     I 
the  coil  is  wrong  the  cost  may  be  ^— '  /  "« J^^ 
much     The  cylinder  and  water  jacket  should  be  ex- 
amined  for   cracks   and    the   owner   made   to    give   a 
definite  statement  as  to  their  condition.    A  crack  can- 
not always  be  seen,  but  gasoline  under  pressure  will 
find  it     Paint  may  tell  something  about  the  age  of  an 
engine  and  how  well  it  has  been  cared  for:  or  ,t  may 
be  used  fresh  for  the  occasion   to  cover  up  defects. 
Which  one  the  engine  is  a  bargain  for  depends  as  much 


264         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

upon  the  honesty  of  the  seller  and  the  practical  knowl- 
edge of  the  buyer  as  upon  the  engine.  It  is  always 
safe  to  remember  that  an  expert  will  get  good  work 
out  of  any  engine  for  some  time  if  it  will  run  at  all, 
and  that  the  owner  is  very  likely  to  be  something  of 
an  expert  with  his  own  engine. 

346.  After  Buying. — Having  purchased  an  engine 
of  this  sort,  do  not  get  discouraged  at  the  first 
glimpse  of  trouble.  Any  engine  may  be  thrown  out 
of  adjustment  while  being  torn  out  and  moved.  A 
wire  may  be  broken  or  rusted ;  many  trifling  things 
may  happen.  Don't  take  the  w^ord  of  the  first *agent 
that  it  is  only  fit  for  the  junk  pile.  Let  him  show  you 
why,  if  he  wants  to,  but  do  not  let  him  take  it  to 
pieces  to  show  you.  He  may  drop  some  valuable  hint ; 
his  aim  is  to  make  a  sale. 

Write  to  the  company  who  made  it  and  get  their 
catalogues,  their  directions,  their  advice.  It  may  have 
to  be  sent  to  some  shop  for  a  general  overhauling,  or 
it  may  not  be  worth  it;  but  be  game  until  you  find 
out.  Don't  condemn  it  until  the  minor  repairs  are 
made,  if  the  case  is  hopeful.  If  it  isn't,  don't  buy  in 
the  first  place ;  but,  having  made  the  one  investment, 
better  put  enough  more  with  it  to  see  it  through.  If 
the  trouble  is  in  the  trimmings,  the  chances  are  it 
may  be  fixed  up  at  a  reasonable  expense.  If  there 
is  a  cracked  or  oval  cylinder  to  deal  with,  the  case  is 
dubious,  though  not  hopeless. 

347.  Oiling  the  Engine. — So  many  of  our  engine 
troubles  come  to  us  because  of  things  we  forget,  that 
any  system  which  enables  us  to  remember  things  will 
do  much  to  eliminate  our  troubles.  A  regular  system 
in  starting  and  stopping  the  engine  will  save  us  many 
failures  and  not  a  few  cracked  water  jackets  in  cold 
weather. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  265 

First,  clean  out  oil  holes  from  dirt  and  grit,  and  see 
that  lubricators  are  all  in  place  and  filled.  For  start- 
ing the  first  time,  open  the  cylinder  lubricator  and  per- 
mit the  oil  to  drip  a  short  time,  hand  cranking  the 
engine  so  as  to  get  the  inside  of  the  cylinder,  the  piston 
and  rings  thoroughly  oiled.  Oil  the  balance  of  the 
engine  same  as  any  other  machine,  beginning  at  one 
side  and  making  a  clean  sweep  of  it  while  going 
around.  Take  this  occasion  always  to  notice  whether 
the  valves  are  sticking  or  the  governors  and  gearing 
all  right. 

348.  The  Cooling  System. — See  that  the  cocks  are 
open  along  the  water  system  and  that  the  water  is 
circulating  through  the  pipes.  Do  not  guess  at  this ; 
be  sure.  Of  course  all  drain  cocks  must  be  closed  and 
there  must  be  a  supply  of  water  in  the  tank.  If  the 
engine  is  air  cooled  notice  that  the  fans  are  all  in 
place.  If  the  engine  has  been  run,  open  drain  cock 
in  muffler  pipe  if  one  is  there,  and  drain  off  any  con- 
densed water  it  contains. 

349.  Retard  the  Spark. — Of  all  directions,  this  is 
one  of  the  most  important,  for  upon  its  observance 
depends  the  operator's  safety.  Set  the  spark  lever 
back  as  far  as  it  will  go,  or  follow  whatever  directions 
for  spark  retarding  came  with  the  engine.  Perhaps 
more  people  have  been  injured  by  gasoline  engines  by 
reason  of  not  observing  this  rule  than  from  any  other 
cause. 

350.  The  Carburetor. — Open  the  cock  between 
carburetor  and  fuel  tank  and  depress  the  spindle  to 
the  float  valve  until  a  supply  of  the  liquid  comes  over. 
See  that  the  air  intake  is  open.  In  cold  weather  it 
may  be  necessary  to  warm  the  tube  or  the  intake. 

351.  The  Switch. — Close  the  switch  by  bringing  the 
lever   down   until    it   is    pressed    clear   back   into    the 


266         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm     • 

groove  made  to  receive  it.  See  that  the  metal  is  clean 
and  the  contact  good. 

352.  Starting  the  Engine. — If  the  engine  is  small 
grasp  the  fly  wheel  rim  with  both  hands,  if  crank  is 
not  used,  and  turn  the  wheel  over,  in  most  engines 
from  left  to  right  or  with  the  hands  of  a  watch.  Re- 
lease just  as  the  compression  has  been  overcome  and 
the  resistance  begins  to  ease  ofif.  If  the  engine  is  too 
large  to  turn  over  by  hand,  a  bar  is  sometimes  used, 
but  is  rather  dangerous  for  a  novice.  If  there  is  a 
relief  cock  in  end  of  cylinder,  open  this  and  crank  until 
first  explosion  occurs,  and  then  close  at  once ;  if  not, 
the  exhaust  valve  may  be  held  up  with  a  block  tied 
to  a  string  until  the  power  stroke  begins ;  then  the 
block  should  be  jerked  out  quickly.  Usually  the  ex- 
plosion will  come  with  the  first  or  second  turn  of  the 
wheel.  If  not  with  the  first,  catch  the  rim  as  it  comes 
around  after  being  driven  back  by  the  compression 
and,  with  the  momentum  gained,  try  and  keep  it  go- 
ing over  the  next  compression.  Do  not  forget  to  re- 
lease the  hold  at  once  when  extreme  of  compression 
stroke  is  passed.  If  the  spark  does  not  come  within 
the  first  half-dozen  turns  better  stop  and  investigate, 
as  something  is  wrong.  Be  careful  always,  while  turn- 
ing the  wheel,  that  there  are  no  projections  to  catch 
the  clothing  or  strike  the  person.  Never  under  any 
circumstances  turn  the  wheel  by  setting  a  foot  on  the 
spoke. 

353-  Just  After  Starting. — As  soon  as  possible  after 
the  engine  has  started  shut  ofif  the  cock  on  the  gaso- 
line line  about  a  half,  as  the  mixture,  once  the -suction 
of  the  cylinder  is  established,  would  otherwise  be  so 
rich  the  engine  would  soon  choke  down  and  stop.  Ad- 
vance the  spark  gradually,  as  the  engine  picks  up 
speed  until  it  is  running  strong ;  then  go  back  to  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  26^ 

gasoline  supply  and  regulate  the  flow  of  air  and  gas- 
oline as  already  described  until  just  the  right  open- 
ing is  found.  By  noting  the  position  carefully,  these 
adjustments  can  afterwards  be  made  with  very  little 
trouble,  although  there  is  a  little  variation  required 
under  certain  conditions. 

If  the  engine  should  not  start,  don't  blame  the  en- 
gine. Open  the  switch,  shut  off  the  lubricators  and 
read  youi"  instruction  book  again. 

354.  Getting  up  Power. — Do  not  expect  full  power 
of  any  engine  at  once.  Everything  about  it  is  cold. 
Sometimes  in  cold  weather  it  will  be  found  necessary 
to  partly  close  the  end  of  the  air  pipe  while  starting. 
In  that  case  open  again  gradually  as  the  engine  warms 
up,  until  wide  open.  If  the  engine  is  new,  a  good  deal 
of  its  power  may  have  to  be  expended  on  itself  for 
some  time.  If  old  and  for  some  time  in  disuse,  the 
cylinder  walls  may  have  become  rusty  and  so  retard 
it. 

355.  Going  After  All  the  Power. — A  surprising 
number  of  people  will  select  their  engine  with  most 
critical  regard  for  its  economy  in  fuel  for  the  power 
developed,  and  will  then  defeat  their  own  object 
through  carelessness  in  adjustment.  Engines  that  are 
set  level  and  on  firm  foundations  will  do  more  work 
and  at  less  cost  for  fuel  and  less  wear  on  the  engine. 
Dirt,  grit,  floating  dust,  obstructions  of  any  kind,  have 
more  or  less  effect,  and  that  effect  is  always  bad.  In 
the  first  place  it  invariably  means  careless  habits,  and 
that  is  fatal  to  getting  the  full  power  out  of  the  en- 
gine. Valves  that  are  poorly  regulated  are  wasting 
fuel  and  energy.  The  poor  adjustments  which  might 
be  made  right  as  easily  as  wrong  may  overcome  more 
than  30%  of  the  engine  energy  sought  after  with  so 
much  care  while  making  the  selection.    The  man  who, 


268         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

after  paying  a  round  price  for  an  engine  of  the  high- 
est efficiency,  gets  less  result  from  it  than  one  who 
buys  a  cheaper  make,  may  have  his  ignorance  of  en- 
gines to  excuse  him  at  the  start.  If  that  ignorance 
continues,  he  has  no  excuse.     He  is  to  blame  himself. 

Dirt  means  anything  out  of  place.  Too  much  gas- 
oline in  the  cylinder  is  dirt,  and  so  is  too  much  oil. 
Even  the  tools  required  to  operate  the  engine  may  be- 
come rubbish  by  getting  out  of  place.  The  most  un- 
tidy engine  room  on  earth  may  not  contain  so  very 
much  that  its  most  up-to-date  neighbor  does  not  con- 
tain. The  difference  is  only  in  the  arrangement;  in 
a  carelessness  that  will  be  fatal  to  the  working  of  an 
engine.  Remember  that  whatever  is  worth  doing  at 
all  is  worth  doing  the  right  way,  and  whatever  has 
to  be  done  is  worth  doing  well. 

Some  gasoline  engine  men  will  run  their  engine  for 
months  without  learning  more  about  its  construction 
than  they  were  obliged  to  learn  the  first  day  in  order 
to  run  it  at  all.  This  speaks  well  for  the  engine  but 
not  for  the  man.  A  steam  engine  would  in  that  time 
compel  at  least  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  the  man 
behind  it,  or  quit  work.  Possibly  the  engineer  would 
quit  at  the  same  instant.  Some  engine  men,  and  not 
professionals  either,  can  tell  from  the  sound  what  the 
engine  is  doing;  others  are  barely  able  to  tell  from 
the  looks  afterwards  what  it  has  done. 

356.  The  Gospel  of  Attention. — Gasoline  engines 
are  often  advertised  to  run  without  attention ;  that  does 
not  mean  that  reasonable  care  is  injurious  to  them 
although  they  are  often  neglected  on  that  account. 
A  new  engine,  in  particular,  should  be  watched  for 
loose  nuts,  loose  bolts,  tight  or  loose  bearings.  Very 
few  things  go  wrong  without  some  indications  or 
symptoms  that  the  observing  attendant  can  read. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  269 

Not  only  does  the  engine  need  this  close  attention 
until  thoroughly  installed  ;  the  novice  engineer  needs 
it  even  more.  The  drill  in  close  observation  v^ill  be 
invaluable  to  him,  and  will  serve  him  many  times  in 
getting  out  of  trouble  because  of  his  familiarity  with 
the  exact  performance  of  each  part  when  all  was 
working  well.  Reading  instruction  books  may  do 
much  toward  teaching  him  what  to  look  for.  Experi- 
ence and  observation  alone  will  teach  him  how  to  make 
the  most  of  what  he  sees. 

After  the  engine  and  the  engineer  have  been  tried 
out  and  are  fully  acquainted  with  each  other,  close 
attention  or  at  least  continual  attendance  may  not  be 
necessary.  The  engine  may  often  be  left  to  itself  for 
hours.  In  all  machinery,  however,  there  is  always  the 
possibility  of  something  going  wrong,  and  the  true 
engineer  will  prefer  to  at  least  come  within  earshot 
of  his  engine  occasionally.  As  a  general  thing  the 
man  who  could  leave  his  engine  wholly  to  itself  with 
the  least  risk  is  the  one  who  would  be  last  to  do  so. 

357.  Importance  of  Letting  Alone. — The  gospel  of 
attention  should  include  special  instruction  in  the 
necessity  of  letting  alone.  When  everything  is  going 
as  it  should  go,  further  adjustment  is  work  for  the 
experienced  engineer.  The  novice  who  begins  to  ex- 
periment is  just  beginning  his  troubles.  Even  worse 
than  this,  though,  is  a  willingness  to  let  someone  else 
experiment.  We  should  be  alert  for  suggestions,  but 
should  use  our  own  brains  a  while  on  the  idea  before 
using  the  latter  on  the  engine.  If  the  engine  don't 
work,  master  it  yourself  or  else  get  an  expert ;  don't 
let  someone  else  try  experiments  at  your  expense. 
Even  an  expert,  if  the  agent  for  some  other  line,  should 
not  be  trusted.  He  may  be  conscientious ;  he  is  sure 
to  be  prejudiced  and  to  have  less  real  personal  inter- 


2^0         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

est  in  fixing  up  your  engine  than  he  would  have  in  fix- 
ing his  own. 

Whenever,  in  walking  around  an  engine,  one  is 
tempted  to  take  up  a  wrench  and  go  to  work  on  some 
questionable  adjustment  make  it  a  rule  to  pick  up  a  bit 
of  waste  instead  and  clean  a  wheel  or  brighten  the 
trimmings.  That  rule  alone,  if  rigidly  adhered  to,  will 
save  a  vast  amount  of  trouble,  as  will  the  other  rule 
to  never  take  up  a  wrench  until  there  is  use  for  it. 

358.     Shutting  Down.— There  should  be  a   regular 
system  of  shutting  down  as  well  as  of  starting;  then 
nothing  will  be  forgotten.     Shut  off  the  water  supply, 
if  a  water-cooled  engine;  shut  off  the  gasoline,  open 
the  battery  switch.     Stop  the  engine  so  that  all  valves 
are  closed,  so  there  will  be  no  communication  between 
the  inside  of  the  cylinder  and  the  open  air.     Remove 
the  drive  belt  by  running  it  from  the  fly  wheel  as  the 
engine  slows.    Shut  off  the  lubricators.    If  the  weather 
requires  it,  drain  the  water  pipes.    Clean  up  all  patches 
of  grease   and  oil;   put  tools   in  their  place.      Leave 
everything  in  perfect  order  for  beginning  another  day. 
If  intending  to  leave  the  engine  idle  for  some  time, 
inject  a  small  quantity  of  kerosene  into  the  cylinder. 
It  will  remove  most  of  the  carbon  and  still  leave  the  oil 
glaze  on  the  walls  and  piston  and  rings.     Turn  the 
engine  over  a  few  times  by  hand  while   introducing 
it,  then  drain  out,  until  the  oil  comes  fairly  clear.     If 
very   bad,   inject   a   pint   and   let   stand   for   ten    min- 
utes, turning  the  engine  enough  to  keep  it  agitated; 
then  open  tap  and  leave  open  for  24  hours  or  else  pre- 
pare to  leave  the  neighborhood  when  next  the  engine 
is  started.     A  coating  of  vasoline  on  the  valves  will 
do  much  to  protect  them  while  the  engine  is  standing 
idle. 

359.     Things    to    Think    About.— It's    always    the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  271 

blunders  that  cost.     Things  that   go   right   are   inex- 
pensive. 

In  the  present  age  of  well  made  engines,  the  only 
troubles  that  usually  come  to  an  engine,  outside  of 
disturbed  adjustment  through  vibration,  are  due  to  ig- 
norance, carelessness  and  natural  wear.  Of  these  three 
causes,  the  first  two  are  most  prolific  of  trouble,  and 
both  of  them  are  directly  in  the  hands  of  the  man 
himself. 

The  driven  as  well  as  the  driving  machinery  must 
be  kept  in  order  if  we  are  to  get  full  returns  in  power 
from  our  engine  investment.  Dull  knives,  worn  cogs, 
and  shafts  out  of  line  all  destroy  engine  energy  and 
waste  both  fuel  and  power. 

An  engine  that  will  deliver  10  full  horse-power  per 
hour  on  a  gallon  of  gasoline  may  barely  develop  power 
using  the  same  amount,  in  other  hands.  The  differ- 
ence is  neither  due  to  engine  nor  to  fuel,  but  to  the 
men. 

Sometimes  we  know  what  we'  are  paying  for  our 
power,  without  knowing  wdiat  power  we  are  getting 
or  what  it  is  costing  us  per  unit  of  useful  energy. 
"  The  vital  time  with  any  machine  is  when  it  begins 
to  wear  out.  Easy  repairing  sometimes  determines  the 
difference  between  continued  service  and  the  scrap 
pile. 

When  the  engine  balks,  as  it  some  day  surely  will, 
consider  five  things  well ;  compression,  fuel,  timing, 
spark,  insulation. 

At  all  times  bear  in  mind  these  four  rules : 
Use  good  oil,  especially  about  the  cylinder. 
Draw  off  the  water  in  frosty  weather. 
Do  not  feed  too  much  gasoline. 
Keep  battery  connections  tight. 

If  you  want  to  make  a  success  of  operating  your 


2'j2  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

engine  study  the  engine.  If  you  want  to  become  a 
neighborhood  expert  at  it  add  to  your  course  of  study 
mechanics,  heat,  chemistry,  electricity,  good  sense,  and 
your  own  engine. 

360.  Overhauling  an  Engine. — If  the  cylinder  heads 
are  removable,  remove  them,  if  the  operation  is  to  be 
thorough.  Place  them  in  kerosene  to  soak  while 
cleaning  the  cylinder.  Note  the  nature  of  the  deposits ; 
whether  the  oil  used  has  been  what  it  should  be. 

Have  valves  in  soaking.  Clean  and  scrape  the  heads, 
especially  at  the  joints,  but  do  not  break  the  surface 
glaze.  The  valves  may  be  rubbed  with  fine  emery 
cloth.  Notice  that  the  valve  guides  are  not  worn  un- 
evenly along  the  side,  and  whether  the  valve  seats 
properly. 

Let  the  timer  alone  until  the  setting  as  supplied  by 
the  factory  has  been  unmistakably  marked.  This 
should  always  be  done  when  the  engine  is  new,  before 
it  has  a  chance  to  lose  its  adjustment.  By  using 
graphite  on  the  nuts  they  go  on  much  better  and  do 
not  rust. 

If  the  engine  is  a  multiple  C3'linder  do  not  mix  the 
pistons,  even  though  they  are  interchangeable.  Do 
not  even  change  the  rings.  Each  wears  to  its  own  pe- 
culiar position.  If  made  to  scrape  out  a  new  one 
each  time  there  will  be  lots  of  waste  energy  and 
waste  engine.  Each  ring  will  seat  best  in  its  own 
groove. 

Note  carefully  the  wear  on  the  gudgeon.  There 
should  be  some  side  float  but  no  shake.  Worn  pins 
are  probably  case-hardened  and  something  is  wrong. 
If  the  wear  on  pins  or  bushings  is  at  the  ends,  the 
rod  is  out  of  line.  If  full  length  the  bushings  should 
be  scraped  to  fit  the  new  pin.  Bearings  that  are  bright 
all  over  should  not  be  meddled  with ;  but  if  in  spots 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  273 

only,  scrape  the  spots  down  enough  to  ease  them. 
Scrape  out  any  score  marks  on  pin  or  in  shell,  then 
rub  with  oil  stone  or  emery  stone  and  finish  with  fine 
emery  cloth.  , 

The  crank  shaft  should  be  specially  well  mspected 
for  signs  of  uneven  wear  or  false  alignment.  Nothing 
is  harder  on  an  engine  than  to  jerk  a  wabbly  shaft 
around  by  means  of  a  twisting  piston. 

Clean  all  the  wiring  terminals  thoroughly  with  gaso- 
line The  coils  should  be  cleaned  also,  but  always 
with  a  care  for  the  insulation,  which  must  be  guarded 
from  oil  or  water. 

If  possible  blow  steam  from  a  steam  boiler  through 
all  the  fuel  and  water  pipes.  Do  not  leave  them  un- 
connected  until   dirt   gets   in   again.      Connect   up   at 

once. 

If  a  magneto  is  used,  take  it  over  to  the  electric 
light  station  and  have  it  fully  tested  with  a  generator 
and  Ohm  meter.  Coat  the  winding  with  shellac  after 
brushing  out  and  .cleaning  the  armature  thoroughly. 
After  the  shellac  is  dry,  varnish.  Do  not  forget  to 
clean  the  armature  bearings  and  to  see  that  the  oil 
grooves  are  open.  Spark  plugs  should  be  removed 
and  cleaned,  then  coat  the  screw  base  with  graphite 
and  screw  into  place  with  the  hand  if  possible,  never 
with  a  large  wrench.  Spare  plugs  should  be  looked 
over  at  the  same  time,  coated  with  mineral  grease, 
and  wrapped  in  waxed  paper.  Keep  them  dry  as  well 
as  dry  cells  and  spark  coil. 

Even  the  fuel  tank  should  not  be  forgotten.  Clean 
out  and  look  for  leaks.  Disconnect  the  pipe  and  get 
rid  of  all  rust  and  scale. 

The  muffler  should  be  given  a  thorough  cleaning 
and  its  load  of  soot  entirely  gotten  rid  of.  There  is 
nothing  to  be   injured   here;   use   kerosene,   gasoline, 


274         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

whatever  keeps  the  dirt  coming,  until  the  liquid  comes 
out  clear. 

Goat  the  battery  terminals  with  vaseline  if  the  en- 
gine is  to  remain  idle  for  a  while  as  a  protection  from 
acid. 

361.  The  Personal  Hazard. — Accidents  to  the  per- 
son usuallv  consist  of  burns  about  the  hands  and  arms 


^     A\  \ 


I 


Fig.  83. — Correct  and  Incorrect  Method  of  Cranking  an  Engine. 
Correct  Method,  Left  Hand  Used.  In  Case  of  Pre-ignition 
Handle  Is  Jerked  Away  from  the  Hand,  Which  Is  Left  Out- 
side of  Crank  Circle.  Incorrect  Method,  Uses  Right  Hand. 
Back  Kick  Will  Either  Drive  Handle  Against  Hand  or 
Leave  Hand  in  Crank  Circle.     Result,  Broken  Arm  or  Wrist. 

or  about  the  face  from  flashes  of  gasoline  at  some  un- 
expected time  and  place.  Hot  pipes,  hot  cylinders,  a 
hot  muffler,  and  the  hot  blast  of  the  explosion  itself 
are  all  about  equally  frequent  ofifenders. 

Injury  to  the  eyes  come  from  the  muffler  blast  on 
account  of  after-firing  or  from  back-firing  to  the  car- 
buretor. 

Broken  bones,  broken  noses  and  lost  teeth  are  part 
of  the  general  tribute  levied  by  the  fly  wheel  on  the 
careless  operator.  To  avoid  these,  never  forget  to 
retard  the  spark  before  cranking  the  engine. 

The  fans  on  an  air  motor  give  many  a  vicious 
bruise  and  cut. 

A  good  many  sore  fingers  have  resulted  from  the 
hand-hold  on  the  fly  wheel  being  such  that  it  brought 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  275 

the  fingers  against  the  base  or  a  projecting  part,  as 
a  bolt  head. 

In  starting  with  crank  see  that  the  crank  is  on  and 
properly  clutched;  then,  standing  at  the  rear  of  the 
wheel  with  respect  to  its  revolutions,  grasp  handle 
firmly  and  revolve  over  and  from  the  person  until 
compression  is  passed,  then  bring  the  handle  around 
until  turning  against  compression  again.  This  ought 
to  start  the  engine,  when  the  clutch  will  be  disengaged 
and  the  crank  will  drop  from  the  wheel  and  remain 
in  the  hand.  Use  weight  rather  than  strength  in 
turning  heavy  engine  over,  then  keep  it  rolling  with 
the  hands  imtil  the  first  impulse  is  felt. 

Always  suspect  that  there  is  a  charge  of  unexploded 
gas  in  the  cylinder.  After  the  plug  is  removed  this 
may  be  tested  for  with  a  lighted  match,  but  keep 
hands  and  face  away  from  all  ports. 

It  is  the  business  of  every  engine  operator  to  pro- 
tect all  visitors  he  admits  to  the  engine  room.  Danger 
signs  are  good,  but  not  enough.  The  engine  looks 
harmless  and  inviting,  while  the  damage,  if  any,  that  it 
does  is  done  in  an  instant. 


2^/6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


£0 


o 


CHAPTER    XV. 
THE  TRACTION  .ENGINE. 

362.  Its  Message  to  the  World. — The  stationary 
gasoline  engine  has  given  its  message  to  the  world 
through  farm  and  factory  alike.  The  traction  engine 
is  to  discharge  its  more  important  mission  through  the 
farm  alone,  a  mission  of  threefold  import  at  least,  ob- 
tained as  a  direct  result  of  accomplishments  which 
are  wholly  its  own. 

I  St.  Through  more  extended  operations. 

2nd.  Through  more  thorough  work. 

3rd.  Through  more  timely  work. 

No  mention  is  made  here  of  the  additional  message 
to  the  farmer  himself  of  cheaper  labor,  easier  and 
pleasanter  work,  and  more  time  to  enjoy  the  luxuries 
of  life,  for  which  the  tractor  also  furnishes  the  oc- 
casion. 

363.  Its  First  Accomplishment. — That  the  average 
man  could  not  give  true  intensive  culture  to  more 
than  twenty-five  acres  of  land  has  been  the  judgment 
of  the  best  agricultural  authorities  for  years,  and  even 
this  amount  would  not  be  taxed  to  its  utmost  as  fully 
as  the  man  would.  As  the  pressure  for  supplies  be- 
comes greater  it  has  been  more  and  more  evident  that 
the  world  cannot  afford  large  farms  skimmed  over  with 
careless  culture ;  her  one  course,  if  she  would  keep 
her  children  all  supplied  with  bread,  is  to  increase  the 
product  of  each  acre  by  substituting  twenty-five  acre 
culture  wherever  the  extensive   methods   are   in  use. 

277 


278         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

This  means  more  men ;  more  than  she  has  to  spare  of 
the  right  kind.  The  problem  was  a  perplexing  one 
until  the  traction  engine  solved  it  by  putting  into  the 
hands  of  one  man  the  reins  which  control  the  work 
C)f  twenty-five  to  fifty  horses.  Since  the  American 
farmer  has  not  the  time  to  properly  till  all  the  tillable 
land  in  the  old  way  and  there  is  no  way  of  increasing 
the  number,  the  time  that  was  his  has  been  increased 
by  putting  into  his  day  the  working  energy  of  many 
men  and  teams. 

364.  The  Second  Message. — Usually  the  area  of  a 
single  man's  cultivated  fields  is  increased  at  the  ex- 
pense of  efficient  work.  The  tractor  is  permitting  him 
to  do  better  work  by  giving  him  the  power  that  is 
needed  to  run  the  most  efficient  machinery  that  can 
be  made.  The  machine  designer  does  not  now  have  to 
limit  his  implements  to  machines  that  a  team  will 
handle ;  he  is  permitted  to  regard  them  from  the  stand- 
point of  efficiency  alone. 

365.  And  the  Third. — Only  the  farmer  himself 
realizes  how  many  times  he  has  been  forced  to  begin 
his  plowing  or  seeding  or  harvesting  before  the  ground 
or  the  crop  was  ready  because  at  best  the  last  part 
of  the  work  w^ould  be  delayed  until  later  than  it  ought 
to  be.  With  a  25-acre  field  to  plow  and  fit  for  each 
man  and  team  not  less  than  twenty  days  would  be 
required,  of  which  perhaps  ten  would  be  within  the 
time  w^hen  the  crop  should  be  sowed  and  the  ground 
in  the  best  condition.  During  the  first  five  days  of 
the  fitting  the  ground  would  be  too  wet  to  work  well ; 
during  the  last  five  the  season  would  be  getting  late ; 
but  if  the  farm  work  was  planned  to  the  best  me- 
chanical advantage  and  the  harvesting  of  the  field  to 
be  done  all  at  once  as  it  should  be,  none  of  the  field 
was  sowed  until  all  was  fitted.     Then  how  many  of 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  279 

us  can  tell  the  story  of  a  large  field  almost  ready  for 
drill  or  planter  when  a  three  days'  rain  suspended 
operations  for  at  least  a  week,  made  refitting  neces- 
sary, and  brought  the  planting  almost  hopelessly  late? 
Not  less  than  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output  in 
farm  crops — her  possible  output — is  lost  annually  be- 
cause of  unseasonable  seeding. 

366.  What  the  Gasoline  Tractor  Is  Doing. — The 
small  tractor  for  the  150  to  300-acre  farms  is  plowing, 
fitting  and  seeding  fifteen  to  twenty  acres  a  day ;  an 
output  to  cover  the  entire  farm  it  is  intended  for  within 
the  usual  best  seeding  season,  and  enough  to  complete 
in  one  or  two  days  the  usual  field  of  any  one  crop  on 
a  mixed  farm  of  that  size.  Some  of  the  farming  mo- 
guls of  the  West  are  multiplying  this  output  by  three, 
and  could,  if  run  the  full  twenty-four  hours,  as  they 
may  be  if  required,  have  a  couple  of  townships  in 
growing  crops  at  the  end  of  the  average  seeding 
season. 

367.  Special  Appeals  to  the  Farmer. — Almost  all 
kinds  of  soil,  if  worked  in  the  proper  condition,  can 
be  harrowed  as  soon  as  plowed  more  effectively  than 
at  any  other  time.  Some  farmers  make  it  a  rule  to 
do  this,  though  it  necessitates  extra  teams  or  else  a 
change  of  teams  each  working  period  from  plow  to 
harrow.  The  tractor  can  harrow  as  it  plows.  Once 
over  and  the  work  is  finished,  no  matter  what  weather 
changes  may  come  up. 

Farmers  differ  greatly  in  their  belief  as  to  which 
is  the  best  kind  of  harrow  to  use  even  for  the  same 
purpose  and  upon  the  same  land,  while  many  fields 
differ  in  patches  in  character  of  ground.  The  fact  is, 
every  harrow  has  its  own  distinct  uses,  and  on  most 
grounds  a  combination  of  several  kinds  would  be  a 
distinct  advantage  did  it  not  necessitate  driving  over 


28o         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  ground  so  many  times.  A  good  tractor  will  pull 
a  number  of  these  different  harrows  after  it  at  the  same 
time  it  plows  the  ground,  and  may  be  rigged  to  be 
the  most  effective  of  clod  crushers  with  its  own  weight. 

One  objection  to  the  thorough  harrowing  a  field 
should  really  have  is  the  trampling  of  the  fresh  plowed 
earth  by  the  horses'  feet.  The  tractor  can  be  rigged 
to  plow,  harrow  and  seed  all  in  one  operation ;  or,  if 
more  harrowing  is  desired,  the  broad  wheels  do  not 
throw  nearly  as  much  weight  on  one  portion  of  the 
ground  as  the  horse  does  and  the  rolling  contact  is 
less  objectionable.  If  they  are  run  twice  over  the  field 
the  thoroughness  of  the  harrowing  that  can  be  done 
with  them  in  the  two  operations  would  exceed  per- 
haps a  dozen  times  what  could  be  done  with  horses, 
since  several  different  kinds  of  harrows  could  be 
hauled  at  a  time  and  supplement  one  another. 

The  plowing  can  be  deeper  than  is  done  with  teams 
and  can  be  regulated  more  uniformly.  A  good  many 
fields  plowed  by  team  power  are  from  four  to  six 
inches  deep,  though  perhaps  their  owners  would  be 
astonished  to  see  their  own  furrows  measured.  The 
depth  of  a  furrow  is  very  deceptive  to  the  eye.  Eight 
to  ten  inches  is  the  usual  depth  for  tractor  plowing, 
though  a  greater  depth  can  be  used  if  desired.  This 
greater  depth  is  of  special  benefit  on  those  farms 
which  have  been  plowed  for  years  on  the  system  of 
surface  skinning  until  a  hard,  polished  bottom  of  com- 
pressed soil  has  been  established  by  the  bottom  of 
the  plow,  that  cuts  the  roots  of  the  plant  off  from  nour- 
ishment below.  By  plowing  a  couple  of  inches  deeper 
for  a  few  years  and  then  increasing  the  depths  again, 
the  depth  of  the  seed  bed  can  be  gradually  increased 
without  bringing  to  the  surface  an  excessive  amount 
of  hard-pan  at  any  one  time.     The  tractor  can  turn 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  281 

this  extra  depth  without  torture  and  with  astonish- 
ing uniformity.  The  thorough  harrowing  it  can  give 
while  the  earth  is  fresh  will  so  completely  pulverize 
this  hard-pan  and  mix  it  with  the  other  soil  that  it 
will  not  have  any  injurious  effect,  while  it  will  help 
in  the  work  of  air  and  moisture-gathering  and  the  seed 
bed  will  be  deepened. 

A  horse  cannot  pull  more  than  fifteen  miles  per  day 
on  an  average,  but  a  team  must  w^alk  sixteen  miles  to 
plow  two  acres  with  a  12-inch  furrow.  The  tractor 
will  draw  a  gang  of  from  two  to  twelve  14-inch  plows 
two  and  a  half  or  more  miles  per  hour  and  will  keep 
it  up  all  day,  without  stopping  to  rest  at  the  end  of 
the  furrow ;  then,  by  changing  men,  will  keep  it  up  all 
night. 

The  life  of  a  horse  is  figured  at  about  10,000  work- 
ing hours,  but  his  maintenance  is  several  times  that. 
The  working  life  of  the  tractor  is  at  least  twice  as 
many  hours,  and  its  maintenance  ceases  when  its  work 
is  done.  The  first  cost  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  the 
horses  it  displaces. 

Whether  working  or  idle,  the  horse  requires  food, 
attention  and  shelter.  All  the  idle  engine  wants  is 
shelter — and  work.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  an  engine  should  be  kept  idle.  The  man  who 
makes  his  tractor  pay  the  best  is  the  one  who  man- 
ages to  keep  it  busy  the  greatest  proportion  of  the 
time. 

The  engine  can  be  made  an  all  the  year  around 
servant,  something  that  can  be  said  of  very  few  other 
farm  machines.  Besides  plowing,  harrowing  and  seed- 
ing, it  hauls  binders,  hay,  and  grain  wagons  both  to 
the  stack  and  to  market,  by  almost  a  train  load ; 
threshes,  grinds,  and  does  all  the  other  work  a  sta- 
tionary engine  can  do,  digs  ditches,  grades  roads,  rolls 


282         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


meadows  and  grain  fields,  and  hauls  heavy  loads  of 
any  kind.  If  the  ordinary  wagon  load  is  to  be  con- 
veyed, the  tractor  w^ill  do  it.  If  some  unusual  work  is 
to  be  done,  such  as  the  moving  of  a  building,  the 
tractor  is  ready  with  the  power,  and  if,  in  the  midst 
of  its  various  tasks,  night  overtakes  it,  the  headlight 
turns  night  into  day  ahead  of  it  and  guides  it  along. 
Twenty-four-hour  stunts  are  not  by  any  means  rare 
in  operating  a  tractor  during  the  busy  season. 

The  tractor,  too,  will  take  up  its  w^ork  at  full  ca- 
pacity after  a  season  of  idleness  without  any  coaxing 
or  favoring  while  its  muscles  are  being  hardened.  It 
is  never  out  of  condition. 

One  acre  in  five  under  cultivation  is  required  to 
produce  the  food  for  the  horses  that  supply  the  power 
to  work  the  rest,  a  food  product  valued  at  $1,250,000,- 
000  per  annum,  or  the  total  income  of  2,000,000  fami- 
lies. The  tractor  consumes  nothing  that  could  be 
made  into  food  for  the  human  family  in  any  more 
direct  way  than  through  the  tractor. 

"There  is  no  question,"  says  a  modern  agricultural 
writer,  "but  that  the  crops  on  many  farms  might  be 
doubled  if  a  proper  seed-bed  were  prepared  and  proper 
cultivation  given ;  but  on  account  of  having  a  large 
acreage  the  work  is  hurriedly  done ;  consequently  only 
about  half  a  crop  is  realized.  One  of  the  advantages 
of  the  small  farm  is  that  it  is  possible  to  do  things  in 
the  proper  way  and  at  the  proper  time  for  growing  a 
maximum  crop."  Profitable  farming  is  now  a  power 
and  implement  problem.  Power  combines  the  intensive 
culture  possible  on  the  small  farm  with  the  economi- 
cal management  of  the  large  one.  In  actual  experi- 
ment a  gain  of  two  hundred  per  cent,  which  was  made 
in  the  productiveness  of  a  certain  area,  one  hundred 
per  cent,  was  found  to  be  due  to  better  plowing  and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farai  283 

harrowing,  fifty  per  cent,  to  better  cultivation  and  the 
rest  to  better  seed. 

Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  power  used  in  raising  wheat 
at  the  present  time  is  expended  in  plowing ;  the  shal- 
low plowing  method  now  so  generally  in  vogue.  For 
permanent  culture  deeper  plowing  is  needed — and  the 
farm  world  is  power-short  now.  Horses  increased  fifty 
per  cent,  in  numbers  in  the  past  ten  years  and  one 
hundred  and  forty-three  per  cent,  in  price.  The  supply 
has  not  nearly  kept  step  with  the  demand.  Neither 
are  horses  able  to  adapt  themselves  so  fully  as  the 
tractor  to  the  wide  range  of  utility  represented  be- 
tween the  slack  and  busy  season  on  the  farm.  The 
horse  force  must  be  kept  on  an  average  9,000  hours 
for  every  1,000  hours  of  full  service.  Animals  cannot 
respond  quickly  enough  to  the  increased  demands  of 
the  rush  season  unless  they  are  kept  in  numbers  which 
at  most  seasons  of  the  year  are  entirely  excessive. 
The  tractor  can  be  worked  to  its  full  capacity  every 
da}^  of  the  year  if  there  is  work  to  do,  and  wdthout  re- 
gard to  excessive  heat,  flies  or  continuous  hours. 
Weed-killing,  in  particular,  can  be  done  by  plowing  at 
a  time  when  both  the  heat  and  the  flies  are  a  torture 
to  horses.  Engine  culture,  too,  makes  it  possible  to 
work  land  that  because  of  its  extreme  refractoriness 
could  not  otherwise  be  put  into  tillable  shape.  It  also 
makes  it  possible  to  avoid  bad  conditions  by  rushing 
the  work  through  w^hen  weather  and  ground  are  the 
most  favorable. 

368.  The  Small  Farm  Tractor. — Because  there  are 
tractors  now  plowing  and  seeding  a  fair  size  farm 
complete  between  sunrise  and  sunset  we  are  apt  to 
forget  its  importance  on  the  small  farm;  indeed,  until 
quite  recently  the  manufacturers  have  so  far  over- 
looked   it   that    there    was    not    a    single    small    farm 


284 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


o 

_    O 

•S'o 

a 
^  bo 


tu- 


tu bfl 
•^  O 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  285 

tractor  excepting  those  home-made  affairs  constructed 
out  of  old  binder  and  mowing  machine  wheels.  The 
success  of  these  and  the  demand  for  something  of  a 
more  finished  and  uniform  design  has  forced  the  fac- 
tories to  take  the  matter  up,  and  several  of  the  late 
designs  are  intended  (as  some  of  them  succeed  in 
doing)  to  cater  to  the  wants  of  the  small  farm.  This 
demand  has  been  more  difficult  to  meet  than  that  for 
the  large  farm,  for  the  big  tractor,  working  in  large 
areas  where  there  is  ample  room  to  turn,  can  be  rigged 
with  trailers,  and  its  work  may  be  of  a  more  re- 
stricted nature,  and  still  be  profitable. 

The  small  farm  tractor  must  be  furnished  at  a  cost 
in  keeping  with  the  other  equipments  of  the  place. 
It  must  contain  within  itself  a  place  for  attaching  and 
operating  four  or  five  plows,  and  it  ought  to  be  so 
constructed  that  it  will  thoroughly  pulverize,  roll  and 
seed  the  strip  it  covers  in  one  operation. 

The  seeding  done,  the  tractor  should  be  readily 
stripped  of  its  tilling  attachments  and  converted  into 
a  common  power  truck  or  general  farm  wagon,  made 
so  nearly  a  part  of  the  load  it  conveys  as  to  derive  a 
part  of  Its  tractive  force  from  the  weight  it  is  carry- 
ing. In  a  similar  manner  it  should  be  converted  into 
a  manure  spreader  by  attaching  its  tractor  trucks  in 
place  of  the  customary  front  trucks  of  the  regular 
machine.  Again,  in  the  meadow,  the  same  tractor 
truck  must  be  readily  equipped  with  cutting  bars,  a 
complete  power  mower  in   itself. 

One  of  the  features  which  the  user  of  the  farm 
tractor  should  insist  upon  is  greater  efficiency  as  com- 
pared with  any  other  sort  of  farm  power.  The  tractor 
that  does  not  do  its  work  better  as  well  as  quicker  has 
failed  in  its  mission,  and  so  have  its  manufacturers 
failed  in  theirs.    The  heavier  weight,  the  smooth,  broad 


286         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


E 

m 

o 
c 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm   •      287 

wheels  which  apply  their  own  powder  without  the  de- 
stroying footprint  of  the  horse,  should  make  our  cul- 
tivated fields  as  smooth  as  a  floor,  and  decrease  the 
strain  on  the  machinery  w^e  use  by  forty  per  cent. 
Instead  of  seed  beds  that  in  spots  contain  unbroken 
clods  and  poorly  w^orked  land,  every  foot  of  the  land 
should  be  ground,  and  pulverized  and  crushed  into 
almost  a  powder,  until  the  dust-bed  of  the  most  in- 
tensive market  gardener  is  obtained,  thoroughly 
aerated,  completely  oxygenized,  but  still  without  the 
clodding  effect  of  the  horse's  foot.  Not  only  will  the 
work  of  the  harvesters  be  greatly  reduced  by  the 
smooth,  even  ground  over  which  they  will  travel,  but 
the  cultivation,  in  the  case  of  corn,  can  consist  more 
directly  of  soil  culture  without  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  miniature  plows  and  harrows,  completing 
the  work  that  in  the  seed  bed  was  neglected.  Experi- 
ence has  proven  beyond  question  that  a  thoroughly 
tilled  field  is  given  a  fair  coating  of  manure  every 
time  its  soil  is  brought  into  thorough  contact  w^ith  the 
oxygen  of  the  air. 

As  a  cultivator  the  ideal  tractor  will  be  readily 
stripped  of  its  broad  wheels  and  a  narrower  set  pro- 
vided which  will  enable  it  to  traverse  the  rows  with  a 
set  of  crust  breakers  and  soil  aerators  that  will  cover 
several  rows  at  a  time.  The  rows  in  planting  are 
measured  accurately  and  run  absolutely  straight.  As 
a  cultivator  the  same  width  setting  should  be  used, 
then  the  minimum  amount  of  guiding  will  be  neces- 
sary for  w^orking  one  row  or  many  at  a  time.  With 
the  same  set  of  wheels,  the  field  spraying  should  be 
done ;  and  with  such  facilities  it  will  be  done,  and  will 
not  be  neglected. 

369.  Trailers  Not  Satisfactory. — For  most  of  our 
eastern  farms  trailers  will  not  answer,  for  they  require 


288 


The  Gasoline  Exgixe  ox  the  Farm 


too  much  space  in  which  to  turn.  Some  of  these  late 
self-contained  plows  claim  to  turn  in  a  space  of  from 
eight  to  fifteen  feet,  while  the  old  heavy  tractors  re- 
quired something  like  fifty,  not  including  the  train  of 
implements  which  they  dragged  along  behind. 


■  ^1 


^^^•^7— The  Broad  Wheels  of  the  Gas  Tractor  Should  Alake 
Cultivated  Fields  as  Smooth  as  Floors  and  Add  Greatly  to 
Lite  ot  Alachinery. 

370.  Cost  of  Tractor  Farming.— This  is  determined 
so  largely  by  individual  conditions  that  anything  more 
than  a  general  estimate  is  out  of  the  question.  Per- 
haps of  all  farm  operations  plowing  furnishes  about 
the  most  uniform  conditions  and  may  be  compared 
most  accurately. 

In  a  number  of  competitive  tests  with  all  kinds  of 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  289 

tractors  the  cost  of  plowing  an  acre  has  ranged  from 
18  cents  up  to  $1.00,  or  perhaps  a  little  more.  The 
smaller  figures  however  do  not  include  the  wages  of 
the  operator — just  the  fuel,  lubricating,  and  other  cash 
expense ;  while  in  the  higher  estimates  are  included 
the  wages  of  men,  interest  on  investment,  deprecia- 
tion and  all  legitimate  expense.  With  all  of  these 
included,  from  40  cents  to  50  cents  per  acre  seems  at 
the  present  time  to  be  a  fair  cost  estimate,  figuring 
the  wages  of  the  operator  at  $2.50  per  day  and  board. 
Here  is  a  fairly  representative  estimate  with  all  the 
items  included. 

Cost  of  plowing  for  10  hours. 

i^  gal.  gasoline   $0.20 

57  gal.  distillate 2.85 

2  gal.  lubricating  oil 40 

Depreciation     1.20 

Interest    J2 

Labor,  engineman 2.70 

Labor,  plowman    1.50 

Board  of  men 1.14 

Total    $10.71 

Amount  plowed  25.6  acres.     Cost  per  acre  $.418. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  estimate  is  for  an  engine 
requiring  the  attendance  of  two  men,  while  many  rigs 
of  equal  capacity  are  now  constructed  so  that  only 
one  man  is  needed. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
WHAT    IS    BEST    IN    THE    TRACTOR. 

371.  The  Demand. — Few  more  severe  strains  are 
ever  put  upon  any  form  of  machinery  than  that  which 
falls  to  the  lot  of  the  farm  tractor.  Not  only  must  it 
do  a  certain  amount  of  work  at  the  drawbar  as  its 
stationary  brother  does,  and  at  the  same  time  propel 
its  own  weight,  but  it  must  do  this  while  traveling 
over  uneven  ground  and  constantly  shifting  positions 
in  relation  to  its  work.  To  stand  this  strain,  all  of  the 
w^orking  parts  must  be  made  strong  and  heavy,  and 
an  important  percentage  of  the  power  developed  has 
to  be  diverted  into  the  moving  of  its  own  weight. 

372.  The  Tractive  Power. — Weight  is  also  neces- 
sary in  order  to  increase  tractive  power,  or  the  grip 
which  the  drive  wheels  get  upon  the  ground.  A  light 
weight  engine,  even  though  it  could  be  constructed 
strong  enough  and  powerful  enough,  would  fail  as  a 
tractor  because  a  reasonable  weight  is  necessary  to 
insure  firm  contact  and  prevent  the  wheels  from  slip- 
ping upon  the  ground  the  moment  a  load  was  hitched 
to  the  drawbar. 

373.  General  Construction. — The  gasoline  tractor 
consists  of  a  gasoline  engine  mounted  upon  wheels,  of 
which  usually  the  two  hind  wheels  are  the  drivers  or 
tractors  and  the  front  truck  a  part  of  the  steering 
gear.  Usually  the  latter  is  equipped  with  two  wheels 
like  a  wagon,  but  there  are  special  forms  of  tractors 
now  on  the  market  where  one  broad  wheel  or  roller 

290 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  291 

is  substituted  for  the  usual  front  wheels.  Some 
tractors  have  the  drivers  in  front,  and  at  least  one 
tractor  recently  brought  out  derives  its  tractive  power 
from  all  of  the  four  wheels. 

Usually  the  power  is  transmitted  from  the  engine 
to  the  drivers  through  a  train  of  gearing  of  which  a 
bull  gear  is  cast  or  bolted  securely  to  the  drive  wheel. 
This  meshes  with  a  pair  of  bull  pinions,  or  one  for 
each  tractor  wheel.  A  compensating  gear  or  differ- 
ential and  an  intermediate  gear  connect  the  bull 
pinion  with  a  main  pinion  secured  to  the  friction 
clutch  and  revolve  with  it  on  the  main  shaft  with  the 
fly  wheel  of  the  engine.  This  intermediate  gearing  is 
necessary  for  two  reasons.  First,  it  reduces  the 
speed  from  the  fly  wheel  rate  of  several  hundred  rev- 
olutions per  minute  to  a  safe  rate  for  engine  operation 
over  rough  ground;  second,  it  permits  the  engine  to 
be  located  in  the  most  convenient  place,  even  though 
not  always  in  close  proximity  to  the  drive  wheels. 

374.  Other  Forms  of  Transmission. — \\h\\e  gear 
wheels  are  in  almost  universal  use  in  steam  tractors, 
and  are  most  common  in  gasoline  tractors,  some  other 
forms  of  transmission  are  occasionally  seen.  Friction 
gearing  is  becoming  more  and  more  a  favorite,  for  one 
reason,  because  of  the  greater  range  it  allows  in  the 
matter  of  speed.  In  some  home-made  tractors,  too, 
belt  power  has  been  utilized,  though  it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  add  that  most  of  these  have  little  power  beyond 
that  of  self  propulsion.  Chain  driven  tractors,  too,  are 
in  occasional  use  for  light  forms  of  work,  but  the  gear 
wheel  occupies  a  place  with  heavy  tractors  that  noth- 
ing else  has  yet  usurped. 

375.  Steam  and  Gasoline  Tractor  Differences.— In 
most  respects  the  gasoline  tractor  is  merely  a  steam 
tractor  without  the  boiler,  and  its  mounting  is  more 


292 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


simple.  There  are,  however,  certain  radical  differences, 
of  which  one  of  the  most  important  is  the  methods  nec- 
essary for  reversing  and  for  changing  speed.  Steam 
engines  can  be  made  readily  reversible,  the  forward 
or  backward  movement  being  accomplished  at  will 
through  the  engine  itself.  In  the  gasoline  tractor  this 
has  to  be  accomplished  in  the  transmission  gear,  dif- 
ferent sets  of  cogs  being  thrown  into  mesh  for  higJi 
and  low  speed  and  reverse.     All  gasoline  tractors  are 


Fig.  88.— The  Power  Plant  Is  the  Heart  of  the  Tractor.  Many 
Present  Day  Traction  Engines  Are  of  the  Four  Cylinder 
Four  Cycle  Type. 

limited  to  two  or  at  most  three  speeds  ahead  and  re- 
verse. The  starting  of  the  gasoline  tractor  has  also 
been  more  of  a  problem  than  for  the  more  elastic 
steam,  though  it  is  one  that  has  been  worked  out  at 
the  factory  rather  than  on  the  farm.  A  steam  engine 
may  be  started  very  slowdy  and  gradually  speeded  up. 
The  gasoline  engine  speed  is  practically  continuous 
almost  from  the  first  turn  of  the  wheel ;  hence,  far 
more  depends  upon  the  operator  and  the  management 
of  the  clutch  in  the  easoline  than  in  the  steam  tractor. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  293 

Friction  gear  tractors  have,  of  course,  a  greater  elas- 
ticity of  speed,  but  they  obtain  it  from  the  transmis- 
sion and  not  from  the  engine. 

376.  The  Best  Engine.— Most  of  the  best  tractors 
now  on  the  market  favor  the  four-cylinder  four-cycle 
type  of  engine  with  oiling  system  incorporated  in  the 
crank  case.  The  water  jacket  should  be  ample,  and,  if 
the  thermo-syphon  system  is  used,  the  w^ater  spaces 
must  be  generous  in  size.     The  crank  shaft  and  bear- 


PiG    89.— Bevel  Reversing  Gear   Train. 

ings  must  be  heavy,  and,  of  course,  the  lubricating 
system  is  of  far  greater  importance  than  in  the  case  of 
engines  designed  for  lighter  work.  The  exhaust  pipe 
should  be  large  and,  if  noise  is  not  too  much  of  an  ob- 
jection, the  muffler  should  be  dispensed  with.  This 
adds  materially  to  the  power  and  subtracts  from  the 
cost  in  fuel.  The  power  of  the  engine  should  be  care- 
fully calculated  to  the  work.  There  is  always  the  pos- 
sibility of  too  powerful  an  engine  in  a  tractor  just  as 
there  is  in  a  boat.  Power  enough,  with  a  reasonable 
reserve,  is  necessary.  More  than  that  means  unneces- 
sary torsional  strain — and  weakness. 


294 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


377.  The  Clutch. — Since  this  regulates  the  applica- 
tion of  the  power  to  the  work,  the  life  of  a  tractor 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  clutch  and  its  opera- 
tion. An  irresistible  power  applied  of  a  sudden  to  an 
immovable  object  means  catastrophe,  and  that,  to  a 
limited  degree,  is  what  it  means  to  turn  the  full  powder 
of  a  gasoline  engine  operating  at  top  speed  suddenly 
loose  against  the  transmission  of  a  tractor  which  is 
at  rest.     Either  the  gear  wdieels  must  be  stripped  of 


Fig.  90. — Reversing   Gear   of   Gas    Tractor. 

their  teeth  or  there  will  be  a  tremendous  strain  upon 
both  engine  and  tractor  connections.  It  takes  a  good 
deal  of  power  to  bring  several  tons  of  metal  into 
action,  and  it  is  the  mission  of  the  clutch  when 
properly  handled  to  effect  this  work  without  undue 
suddenness.  ]\[ost  clutches  and  the  pinions  they  carry 
to  engage  the  transmission  gear  are  not  fixed  upon 
the  main  shaft  of  the  engine  wdiere  they  usually  run 
and  onlv  revolve  with  it  when  the  toggles  force  the 
clutch  blocks  out  solidly  against  the  inside  of  the 
belt-wheel's  outer  rim. 

378.     The  Transmission. — There  is  room  for  a  good 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


295 


deal  of  difference  of  opinion  with  regard  to  the 
strength  of  transmission  required,  one  operator  get- 
ting along  nicely  for  years  with  gearing  that  another 
would  strip  in  a  day.  The  farm  engine,  though,  needs 
to  have  much  heavier  gearing  than  the  thresher  en- 
gine only.  Good  authority  estimates  that  the  relative 
strain  placed  upon  the  threshing  and  the  plowing 
tractor  is  about  as  30  to  70.    While  this  estimate  may 


Fig.  91. — Typical  Tractor  Steering  Gear,  Front   Truck   Showing. 


seem  a  little  high,  the  main  gear  of  a  plow  engine 
should  not  be  less  than  a  6  or  7  inch  face,  while  some 
thresher  engines  are  only  4.  This  difference  in  re- 
quired strength  accounts  at  least  in  part  for  the  num- 
ber of  thresher  engines  which  have  been  ruined 
through  being  harnessed  to  the  plow.  They  may  have 
sufficient  power,  but  they  haven't  the  means  of  trans- 
mitting it. 

Tractor  wheels,  too,  should  be  broad  enoueh  to  in- 


296         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

sure  good  grip.  Usually  they  are  provided  with  spurs 
or  lugs  to  prevent  slipping,  and  there  is  quite  a  preva- 
lent opinion  that  their  power  to  hold  is  materially 
greater  if  the  lugs  are  sharp  and  new.  This  is  not 
always  the  case.  Particularly  on  springy  sod,  the 
sharp  edges  of  the  new  lugs  cut  away  the  ground  more 
readily  than  the  rounding  corners  do,  and  as  long  as 
the  ground  is  merely  cut  and  thrown  back  the  tractor 
is  powerless  to  move.  Large  wheels  travel  over  soft 
ground  best  because  there  is  a  greater  bearing  surface 
and  a  small  angle  of  contact  at  the  front  of  the  wheel. 

379.  Differential  or  Compensating  Gear. — The  use 
and  construction  of  the  compensating  gear  are  so  sel- 
dom understood  that  it  seems  wise  to  give  the  subject 
a  little  special  notice. 

If  the  two  drive  wheels  of  an  engine  were  fastened 
rigidly  upon  a  shaft  and  the  entire  shaft  revolved,  it 
is  plain  that  both  wheels,  if  of  the  same  size,  would 
not  only  turn  over  an  equal  number  of  times  but  they 
w^ould  both  roll  forward  the  same  distance  upon  the 
ground.  This  is  exactly  what  is  wanted  so  long  as 
the  engine  moves  in  a  straight  course  over  level 
ground.  If,  instead  of  revolving  the  shaft,  we  ap- 
plied power  to  each  wheel  by  means  of  revolving 
pinions  of  equal  size,  we  would  accomplish  the  same 
result.  Both  wheels  would  travel  ahead  the  same  dis- 
tance and  at  the  same  speed. 

If  we  now  wished  to  turn  a  corner  we  would  find 
it  impossible,  since  in  turning  it  is  necessary  for  one 
wheel  to  advance  faster  than  the  other  and  describe 
a  greater  arc  in  the  turning  circle.  We  might  provide 
for  turning  by  applying  the  power  to  only  one  wheel, 
but  that  would  reduce  the  tractive  power  of  the  engine 
one-half.  Or  some  means  might  be  devised  of  throw- 
ing the  one  wheel  out  of  gear  while  turning  by  means 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  297 

of  a  lever,  but  that  would  hardly  be  convenient,  espe- 
cially when  we  came  to  a  field  of  which  the  surface 
was  so  uneven  that  in  effect  the  engine  would  be 
obliged  to  make  almost  continuous  little  circles,  first 
with  one  wheel  and  then  with  the  other.  Some  means 
of  relieving  either  wheel  automatically  on  demand 
without  releasing  it  from  its  w^ork  is  necessary,  and 
that  is  exactly  what  the  differential  does. 

380.  How  It  Works. — Let  "us  suppose  that  three 
pulleys,  numbered  respectively  i,  2  and  3,  are  sus- 
pended close  together  on  a  shaft  on  which  they  revolve 
loosely  and  independent  of  each  other.  By  so  plac- 
ing them  that  a  spoke  in  i  and  3  are  in  exact  line  and 
say  two  inches  in  advance  of  the  spoke  in  2,  and  then 
thrusting  a  two-inch  rod  or  bar  across  between  these 
spokes,  it  is  evident  that  if  we  turn  2  the  wheels  will 
all  revolve  at  the  same  speed.  This  will  continue  so 
long  as  2  revolves  and  the  bar  remains  at  right  angles 
to  the  pulleys. 

Now  if  we  should  attempt  to  revolve  No.  i  a  little 
slower  than  2  was  turning  by  retarding  it  the  bar 
would  be  swung  around  the  spoke  of  No.  2  as  a  pivot, 
and  if  we  continue  to  retard  No.  i  the  bar  will  finally 
be  so  far  deflected  from  its  first  position  that  its  ends 
will  slip  from  the  spokes  of  both  i  and  3  entirely.  By 
thrusting  a  second  bar  through  at  this  instant  in  the 
same  position  the  first  bar  originally  occupied  the 
process  would  be  repeated  and  would  of  course  con- 
tinue so  long  as  we  replaced  each  bar,  as  it  slipped 
away  from  the  spokes,  with  a  new  one,  providing  we 
still  continued  to  retard  the  same  pulley  with  the  same 
force.  If  the  spokes  were  properly  spaced  in  relation 
to  each  other  and  w^e  could  slip  bars  in  fast  enough 
to  keep  one  at  right  angles  constantly  as  well  as  at 
all  the   angles  between  that  and  the   point  where   it 


298         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

slipped  past  the  spokes,  there  would  be  no  change  in 
the  influence  of  one  wheel  upon  another,  even  though 
the  one  still  continued  to  move  at  a  slower  rate. 

Let  us  now  substitute  for  the  spokes  and  bars  a  pair 
of  bevel  gear  wheels,  the  smaller  one  revolving  on  one 
spoke  of  pulley  2  for  its  axis,  each  tooth  of  the  larger 
wheel  taking  the  place  of  a  spoke  and  each  one  on  the 
smaller  pinions  answering  for  one  end  of  the  bar.  As 
each  tooth  slips  out  another  is  slipped  in  to  take  its 
place  mechanically,  so  that  the  action  is  continuous. 
This  principle  is  introduced  not  only  into  the  traction 
engine,  but  in  other  similar  machinery  one  wheel  of 
which  must  occasionally  turn  faster  than  the  other. 
By  this  means  one  of  the  tractor  wheels  is  free  to 
travel  much  slower  than  the  other,  while  both  are  still 
doing  equal  tractor  work. 

381.  Power  of  the  Gasoline  Tractor. — In  estimat- 
ing the  horse-power  recjuired  in  a  gasoline  tractor  we 
must  remember  that  the  power  of  a  horse  is  measured 
by  his  effective  pull,  which  is  made  while  he  is  in 
motion.  No  tractor  can  propel  itself  about  and  at  the 
same  time  do  the  same  work  at  the  belt  that  it  could 
do  as  a  stationary  engine.  Some  of  its  power  is  lost 
in  transmission ;  much  of  it,  in  self-propulsion  ;  hence 
it  is  unreasonable  to  expect  a  25  H.  P.  engine  to  draw 
as  much  load  mounted  as  a  tractor  as  twenty-five 
horses  w^ould  draw.  The  brake  test  rating  measures 
power  of  a  stationary  engine  only,  and  does  not  repre- 
sent effective  draw-bar  pull. 

Formerly  some  gasoline  engines,  rated  the  same  as 
steam  engines,  when  mounted  as  tractors  gave  disap- 
pointing results  because  a  tractor  when  pulling  its  full 
load  is  being  almost  constantly  overloaded  for  an  in- 
stant by  the  little  obstacles  which  even  the  smoothest 
ground  presents.     When   one   of  these   is   struck  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  299 

steam  engine's  more  elastic  power  will  carry  it  over, 
and  then  it  will  recover  while  the  load  eases  down. 
The  gasoline  tractor  hasn't  the  reserve ;  it  has  to  stop. 
Gasoline  tractors,  too,  when  used  for  threshing  pur- 
poses are  being  continually  "tested,"  "crowded"  and 
"tried    out"    by    hostile    or    curious    threshing    crews, 


-^    ^JiS-'^W  -^   ^ 


Fig.  92. — Bevel   Differential  and  Spur  Driving  Gears  of  I.  H.  C. 

Tractor. 

some  of  whom  would  like  nothing  better  than  to  "stall 
the  new-fangled  engine  down."  For  this  and  various 
reasons  it  is  wise  to  be  certain  that  the  engine  pur- 
chased is  large  enough  for  the  work. 

382.  Power  Needed  in  Plowing. — The  plow  test  is 
the  hardest  necessary  test  the  tractor  ever  has,  and, 
with  plowing  requirements  provided  for,  the  operator 
has  no  occasion  to  be  afraid  under  any  reasonable  con- 


300         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

ditions.  Tests  have  shown  that  a  pull  of  from  500  to 
900  pounds  is  required  to  draw  a  plow  4  inches  deep 
through  gumbo  soil.  On  ordinary  farm  fields  one 
large  engine  user  reports  that  with  a  35  H.  P.  engine 
he  can  easily  handle  fourteen  14-inch  plows  cutting  8 
to  10  inches  deep  and  running  at  a  speed  of  three 
miles  per  hour.  For  moderate  sized  farms  20  to  25 
H.  P.  tractors  can  easily  operate  from  4  to  6  plows, 
while  even  more  has  been  accomplished.  Tractors  of 
15  and  even  12  H.  P.  have  been  reported  as  doing 
satisfactory  work  on  moderate  sized  farms,  while  in 
a  few  instances  home-made  tractors  of  special  design 
have  been  made  to  plow  wdth  even  less  power.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  if  less  than  a  12  horse  tractor  of 
the  trailer  type  can  be  regarded  as  a  practical  plow- 
ing engine  for  even  one  or  two  plows  under  most 
conditions,  while  a  20  to  25  horse  will  undoubtedly 
give  far  better  satisfaction  and  be  found  most  eco- 
nomical. 

Specially  designed  plowing  engines  with  the  plows 
a  part  of  the  engine  are  illustrated  elsewhere,  and  it  is 
possible  that  further  development  along  these  lines 
will  bring  out  a  gasoline  plow  of  much  lighter  power, 
one  that  will  be  wholly  available  for  small  farm  plow- 
ing. Until  quite  recently  it  was  believed  that  some- 
thing like  a  7  H.  P.  engine  w^as  required  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  self-moving  tractor.  Home-made  af- 
fairs constructed  out  of  binder  wheels,  mowing  ma- 
chine wheels  and  other  remnants  of  the  junk  pile 
proved  the  fallacy  of  this  belief,  and  many  ingenious 
farmers  have  at  small  cost  rigged  as  small  as  2  and  3 
H.  P.  engines  up  as  available  tractors.  Now  one  en- 
gine house  manufactures  regularly  working  tractors 
of  as  little  as  6  H.  P.,  while  self-moving  engines  of 
1V2  H.  P.  are  now  on  the  market. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  301 

383.  Home-made  Tractors. — Perhaps  the  reluc- 
tance of  the  manufacturers  in  taking  up  the  problem  of 
farm  tractors  has  had  as  much  to  do  as  anything  with 
the  number  of  home-made  tractors  which  have  been 
constructed  and  put  into  practical  use  by  farmers  and 
their  boys.  Some  of  them  have  been  made  in  the 
simplest  manner  and  have  cost  very  little  that  could 
not  be  supplied  from  the  old  machinery  on  the  farm. 
More  elaborate  designs  have  also  been  attempted,  in 
some  instances  disastrously  expensive,  the  cost  finally 
reaching  more  than  the  price  of  a  regular  market 
tractor  and  the  results  much  less.  Until  the  manu- 
facturers awoke  to  some  idea  of  the  opportunity  they 
were  facing,  these  home  experiments  seemed  about 
the  only  way  the  requirements  of  the  farm  could  be 
served.  Now  that  special  study  is  being  given  the 
subject  by  practical  machine  men  it  is  usually  much 
cheaper  in  the  end  to  purchase  a  tractor  than  to  con- 
struct one.  The  home-made  tractor  is  an  entire  prac- 
ticability, however,  and  for  those  who  are  unable  to 
afford  a  factory-made  one,  and  who  are  willing  to  put 
up  with  less  convenience  in  order  to  get  something 
that  will  do  the  work,  it  is  often  worth  while  trying, 
and  for  such  people  several  home-made  tractors  are 
illustrated  in  this  volume.  Most  of  them  are  belt 
transmission,  a  simpler  and  cheaper  form  and  a  far 
less  durable  one  than  gearing.  Probably  most  of  the 
performances  reported  represent  work  done  when  the 
tractor  was  first  constructed.  Some  of  them  have, 
however,  been  made  at  a  cost  a  little  in  excess  of  $10 
money  outlay  and  were  undoubtedly  well  worth  what 
they  cost,  even  though  of  short  life. 

For  the  lighter  sort  of  tractors^  mowing  machine 
wheels  are  favorites  as  drive  wheels,  but  for  heavier 
work    binder    wheels    are    essential.      Some    of   these 


302         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

have  been  made  to  do  quite  heavy  work,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  have  even  been  harnessed  to  the 
plow.  Discarded  steam  tractor  wheels  have  also  been 
utilized  and  engines  of  lo,  20  and  even  as  much  as  40 
horse-power  tractors  have  been  made  at  home  which 
w^ere  capable  of  any  sort  of  farm  work  at  all  likely  to 
be  put  upon  them,  and  including  threshing,  and  pull- 
ing the  rig  from  barn  to  barn  over  hilly  roads,  ensilage 
cutting,  corn  husking,  plowing,  moving  buildings  and 
tearing  out  hedge  fence.  While  such  ambitious  efforts 
have  been  frequently  successful,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  the  first  attempt  of  an  amateur  in  tractor- 
building  is  at  best  only  an  experiment,  and  it  is  well 
not  to  undertake  it  upon  a.  scale  that  will  sink  too 
much  time  and  money  in  the  venture  if  it  proves  dis- 
appointing, until  some  experience  is  obtained  by 
smaller  ventures. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
OPERATING    THE    TRACTOR. 

384.     Preparing  for  the  First  Start. — The  man  who 
is  at  all  self-conscious  or  easily  confused  by  the  com- 


FiG.  93. — Simple  Home  Made  Tractor  and   Circular  Saw  Stand. 

ments  of  other  people  had  better  restrict  his  audience 
to  one  or  two  efficient  helpers,  and  it  might  be  well 
enough  to  give  these  helpers  plenty  of  their  own  work 
to  do.  A  good  many  men,  in  control  of  their  first 
tractor,  have  landed  it  in  the  ditch  at  the  start,  per- 
haps   at    the    same    time    trying    to    check    it    with    a 

303 


304 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


strenuous  **whoa."  An  experience  of  this  kind  is 
rather  stimulating  to  a  crowd  of  idle  spectators;  also, 
it  is  somewhat  confusing  to  the  man  who  has  made 
the  blunder.  Any  man  needs  all  of  his  attention  cen- 
tered upon  his  work  when  starting  his  first  tractor, 
without  having  any  distraction  by  the  comments  of 
a  crowd. 

By  all  means  if  possible  make  the  first  start  at  some 


Fig.  94-— a  Recent  Factory  Output  With  Enclosed  Power  Plant 
and   Mechanism. 

place  where  there  is  plenty  of  room.  At  any  rate, 
avoid  the  street  or  any  place  where  a  short  mis- 
directed run  may  endanger  the  operator,  or  the  en- 
gine, or  the  lives  of  other  people.  A  level  field  with 
a  firm,  hard  sod  is  the  ideal  place. 

Before  attempting  to  start,  try  the  spark  and  see 
that  the  current  is  all  right ;  also  make  sure  that  there 
is  gasoline  in  the  tank  and  that  it  is  coming  over 
properly.     No  steam  engineer  would  think  of  starting 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  305 

without  looking  to  see  if  he  had  plenty  of  water,  fire 
and  steam.  Oil  the  engine  as  though  it  were  a  sta- 
tionary affair  and,  after  making  sure  that  the  clutch 
is  disengaged,  set  the  fly  wheel  in  motion.  While  it 
runs,  go  over  the  transmission  and  tractor  part  and 
see  that  everything  is  in  order  and  with  a  good  supply 
of  lubrication.  Remember  that  a  more  liberal  amount 
is  needed  when  first  starting  a  new  tractor  than  after 
the  bearings  have  taken  on  their  glaze.  Notice  while 
oiling  that  there  are  no  cinders  or  bits  of  metal  in 
the  oil  holes  or  at  any  place  where  they  will  be  likely 
to  get  into  a  bearing.  Look  the  position  of  the  levers 
over  and  be  certain  to  know  the  use  of  each.  Try  the 
steering  wheel  enough  to  make  sure  that  it  will  turn 
freely  and  that  the  front  wheels  of  the  tractor  are  not 
half  blocked  by  an  obstruction  that  will  deflect  them 
from  a  straight  course.  The  steering  gear  is  much 
harder  to  operate  when  the  tractor  is  at  rest  than 
when  it  is  in  motion. 

Examine  the  bearings  of  the  engine  to  see  that 
nothing  is  heating  and  that  it  is  working  properly  as 
an  engine.  You  will  have  no  time  to  consider  the 
engine  itself  when  first  beginning  to  operate  the 
tractor. 

385.  Starting. — If  there  is  a  moderately  extended 
clear  course  straight  ahead,  as  there  should  be,  with 
the  steering  wheel  bring  the  front  truck  of  the  tractor 
into  place,  at  the  same  time  noticing  whether  the 
steering  chains  are  too  loose  or  too  tight.  If  the 
former,  the  tractor  will  be  hard  to  guide  because  it 
will  not  respond  quickly  enough ;  if  the  latter,  there 
w411  be  excessive  friction  and  strain. 

Lock  the  steering  gear  in  place  for  a  straight  course 
ahead  (most  tractors  have  provision  for  this),  and  so 
be  rid  of  the  details  of  guiding  the  engine  at  the  in- 


3o6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

stant  of  starting.  Engage  the  clutch  carefully,  not 
suddenly  enough  to  set  the  transmission  into  action 
with  a  jerk,  but  without  letting  the  rim  of  the  fly 
wheel  revolve  unduly  long  against  the  clutch  arms 
after  beginning  to  make  contact.  It  takes  some  little 
skill  to  do  this  always  at  the  happy  medium,  but 
practice  will  bring  the  skill.  The  tractor  should  be 
first  started  on  slow  speed. 

386.  Learning  to  Guide  the  Tractor. — As  soon  as 
the  tractor  is  fairly  started  unlock  the  steering  wheel 
and  hold  it  to  a  straight  course  with  the  hand.  A 
skilled  engineer  can  tell  much  from  the  "feel"  or  vi- 
bration thus  conveyed  to  him.  After  becoming  some- 
what accustomed  to  this  quivering  sensation  under 
normal  conditions  and  well  before  there  is  any  neces- 
sity for  forced  action,  begin  to  experiment  a  little 
with  the  steering  wheel  by  turning  it  slightly  and 
then  bringing  the  engine  back  to  a  straight  course 
again.  If  the  chains  are  properly  adjusted  the  wheel 
need  not  be  turned  far  in  order  to  change  the  direc- 
tion of  travel  quite  a  little.  Continue  this  practice 
first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other  for  some 
time,  but  do  not  attempt  any  short  turns.  Aim  to 
acquire  the  habit  of  bringing  the  tractor  about  easily 
and  smoothly  rather  than  by  means  of  abrupt  and 
sudden  changes. 

Before  reaching  the  end  of  the  field,  and  with 
plenty  of  room  ahead,  begin  to  bring  the  engine 
around  for  the  return  trip,  first  in  a  wide  circle,  then 
narrowing  down  to  a  shorter  turn  after  getting  fa- 
miliar with  what  a  certain  amount  of  changing  the 
steering  wheel  will  do.  Remember  always  that  neither 
the  new  engine  nor  the  novice  in  operating  should  be 
given  a  severe  test  at  the  start.  After  a  little  practice 
at  slow  speed  the  higher  speed  may  be   undertaken, 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  307 

and  after  that  the  reverse.  The  first  run  should  not 
be  a  lengthy  one  without  a  stop  and  examination  for 
hot  boxes,  nor  should  any  attempt  be  made  to  run 
near  deep  ditches,  bridges,  or  to  turn  in  narrow  places 
until  considerable  self-confidence  seems  justified  by 
previous  control.  In  stopping,  the  novice  should  al- 
ways try  to  select  a  place  in  which  there  is  reasonable 
space  for  starting  again.  To  find  out  in  advance 
just  how  short  a  turn  may  be  made  with  any  engine, 
cramp  the  wheels  around,  while  it  is  stationary,  as 
far  as  would  be  advisable  when  running,  and  draw  a 
line  directly  under  the  front  axle,  extending  it  some 
distance  from  the  engine.  Next  draw  a  line  under  the 
rear  axle  and  continue  it  until  it  intersects  the  first 
line.  This  point  of  intersection  will  be  the  center  of 
the  circle  within  which  the  engine  can  turn,  and  to 
find  the  exact  amount  of  room  needed  double  the  dis- 
tance from  this  point  to  the  further  side  of  the  truck. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  rule  of  all  in  tractor 
guiding  is  to  run  slow  enough  always  to  keep  the 
tractor  under  perfect  control  and  have  plent}^  of  time 
to  use  the  steering  wheel.  If  the  place  is  specially 
difficult  or  the  turn  unusually  short  this  is  particularly 
important.  By  always  following  this  rule  and  watch- 
ing the  front  axle  of  the  engine  closely  as  a  guide, 
the  problem  of  steering  will  soon  become  almost 
wholly  automatic  and  need  give  one  but  little  con- 
cern under  ordinary  circumstances. 

387.  Mud-hole  Philosophy. — So  long  as  there  are 
mud-holes  tractors  will  get  into  them  occasionally, 
and  it  is  probable  that  there  will  be  mud-holes  as  long- 
as  tractors  last.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  out 
of  them ;  the  next,  not  to  get  in  deeper.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  turn  on  all  the  power  available,  and  pos- 
sibly the  high  speed  into  the  bargain  in  a  case  of  this 


3o8         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

kind.  The  momentum  a  stuck  engine  will  acquire  is 
very  little,  and  it  is  always  safe  to  remember  that 
the  tractor  which  is  moving  slowly,  so  long  as  it  is 
really  moving,  stands  a  much  better  chance  of  climb- 
ing out  than  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  hurry  it.  The 
tractor  can  pull  ahead  or  back  only  so  much  as  the 
ground  into  which  it  thrusts  its  wheel  lugs  holds  for 
it  to  pull  against,  and  the  ground  is  far  more  likely 
to  hold  if  the  strain  is  thrown  upon  it  very  gradually, 
so  that  it  has  a  chance  to  compress  than  if  it  is  hewed 
and  torn  violently  by  rapidly  revolving  lugs.  The 
moment  the  wheels  begin  to  slip  and  spin  around  shut 
off  the  power,  as  a  slipping  drive  wheel  will  dig  a 
deep  hole  very  rapidly. 

Often  the  tractor  will  climb  out  of  itself  if  it  can 
only  be  given  something  that  will  not  allow  it  to  slip. 
Pieces  of  fence  rail,  straw,  plank,  anything  in  fact 
into  which  it  can  sink  its  lugs  and  not  have  them 
break  out  again,  will  help.  If  that  fails,  a  long  rope 
hitched  to  the  main  shaft  and  then  carried  ahead 
and  hitched  to  a  tree  may  be  sufficient ;  then  start  the 
engine  and  wind  up  the  rope  on  the  shaft.  If  a  chain 
is  handy  drop  it  into  the  mud  hole  ahead  of  the 
tractor  wheels ;  then  start  the  engine.  So  long  as  the 
wheels  can  be  turned  the  engine  is  ready  to  pull  itself 
out  if  something  can  be  put  under  them  that  will  hold 
and  not  permit  them  to  slip.  If  the  engine  cannot 
turn  its  wheels,  probably  the  only  way  out  of  it  is  to 
dig  the  tractor  out. 

388.  Sandy  Places. — Always  aim  to  run  the  engine 
as  straight  and  as  steady  as  possible  in  crossing 
patches  of  sand,  so  as  not  to  break  the  grip  of  the  lugs 
loose  by  disturbing  its  surface.  The  weight  of  the 
engine  helps  to  pack  it  down ;  on  a  straight,  steady 
pull  it  may  hold,  but  to  screw  and  twist  the  wheels 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  309 

across  it  is  only  to  loosen  up  the  surface  without  doing 
any  good.  Often  a  bale  of  hay  or  straw  will  save  all 
trouble  if  scattered  ahead. 

389.  Bridges  and  Other  Obstacles. — The  farm 
tractor  is  not  often  called  upon  to  cross  a  bridge  un- 
less in  use  hauling  a  heavy  load  to  market,  but  oc- 
casionally a  bad  bridge  is  encountered.  A  strange 
bridge  should  always  be  examined  before  attempting 
to  cross  and,  if  it  shows  much  wear  or  rotten  plank 
or  timbers,  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  If  it  must 
be  crossed,  a  couple  of  long  planks  three  inches  thick 
at  the  center  and  tapering  to  two  at  each  end  may 
be  laid  across  to  run  the  tractor  wheels  on  and  so 
distribute  the  load  over  more  of  the  bridge  at  once. 
For  a  longer  bridge  use  shorter  planks  at  each  end 
of  the  long  ones.  Always  carry  a  supply  of  good  plank 
along  when  traveling  on  the  road  with  a  tractor  unless 
familiar  with  the  condition  of  all  of  its  bridges.  A 
long  rope  should  also  be  at  hand  so  that  the  load 
drawn  behind,  if  any,  can  be  hitched  back  far  enough 
to  be  clear  of  the  bridge  until  the  tractor  has  crossed 
it.  Run  very  slow  across  bridges  and  avoid  sudden 
jerks  or  anything  that  tends  to  set  up  vibration. 

Hill  climbing  with  a  gasoline  tractor,  unlike  that 
needed  when  using  steam,  requires  no  special  precau- 
tions other  than  to  climb  slowly  and  without  any  at- 
tempts at  gaining  an  advantage  by  the  use  of  sudden 
spurts.  No  advantage  will  be  gained,  and  every  jerk- 
ing strain  should  always  be  avoided. 

Occasionally  some  seemingly  good  authority  will 
recommend  the  surmounting  of  small  obstacles  which 
are  too  much  for  the  engine  at  ordinary  speed  by 
throwing  out  the  clutch  until  the  engine  is  running  at 
full  speed  and  then  throwing  it  in  again  suddenly.  If 
one  is  willing  to  risk  stripping  the  cogs  from  a  gear 


310         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

wheel  and  the  certainty  of  a  very  severe  strain  upon 
every  part  of  both  the  engine  and  the  tractor,  this 
plan  may  be  adopted,  but  not  otherwise.  Under  all 
conditions  it  is  the  aim  of  the  really  skillful  engineer 
to  handle  his  tractor  as  quietly  as  possible,  to  avoid 
all  useless  strains  and  sudden  jerks,  and  to  make 
every  move  count  in  the  right  direction.  There  is  no 
bluster  or  swagger  about  the  man  who  is  fully  master 
of  his  job. 

390.  Speed  Allowable. — When  running  on  good 
roads  the  gasoline  tractor  may  be  put  upon  the  high 
speed  without  any  serious  risk,  providing  the  operator 
has  skill  enough  to  guide  it.  As  this  is  not  over  five 
or  six  miles  an  hour  with  most  engines,  a  little  prac- 
tice ought  to  give  him  this.  Obstacles,  lack  of  skill 
in  the  engineer,  and  increased  vibration  are  about  the 
only  things  that  make  it  necessary  to  keep  the  speed 
of  the  engine  down  when  traveling  over  fair  roads. 
In  plowing  again  the  speed  is  determined  more  by  the 
plow  than  by  the  engine.  Usually  2^  to  3  miles  per 
hour  is  considered  about  right. 

391.  Hauling  with  Tractor. — Approximately  the 
load  a  tractor  of  known  power  will  draw  with  wagons 
as  trailers  may  be  figured  from  the  fact  that  with  i^- 
inch  tires  a  weight  of  one  ton  shows  a  resistance  of 
121  pounds  on  broken  stone  roads  and  of  466  pounds 
on  freshly  plowed  land.  With  6-inch  tires  the  pro- 
portion is  98  to  323.  A  common  earth  road  gives  a 
resistance  of  100  pounds  per  ton  to  the  tractor  power 
with  an  addition  of  20  pounds  extra  for  each  per  cent, 
of  grade. 

392.  The  Real  Tractor  Danger. — The  man  who  can 
run  any  kind  of  a  gasoline  engine  will  generally  find 
that  any  difficulty  he  may  have  with  a  tractor  is  a 
matter  of   his   own   fault.     He   mav   be   careless   and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  311 

attempt  to  run  his  engine  without  proper  provisions 
for  controlHng  it.  With  such  a  man  a  few  tons  of 
metal  in  motion  may  become  a  pubHc  menace ;  so, 
for  that  matter,  wouhl  the  same  man  render  a  spirited 
horse  dangerous.  He  may  be  prone  to  take  the  advice 
of  others  and  so  fall  a  victim  of  every  one  who  has  a 
curiosity  to  see  how  some  pet  theory  of  his  own 
would  work  out — at  somebody  else's  expense.  He 
may  like  to  show  off  and  may  believe  that  starting 
things  with  a  lively  bang  and  bringing  them  up  with 
a  whirl  looks  fearless  and  skillful. 

The  really  skillful  engineer  sees  to  it  first  of  all  that 
everything  about  his  engine  is  in  working  order,  and 
he  tries  to  avoid  all  risks  and  strains  which  might  in- 
cline to  put  it  out  of  that  condition.  He  shows  his 
skill  by  keeping  as  far  away  from  trouble  as  he  can, 
by  starting  up  quietly,  without  any  jerks  and  strains, 
by  doing  everything  with  as  little  fuss  and  swagger 
as  he  may.  If  people  offer  him  advice  he  receives  it 
for  what  he  thinks  it  is  worth,  studies  it  over  in  his 
own  mind,  as  well  as  the  source  from  which  it  came ; 
then,  if  he  thinks  it  good,  perhaps  makes  cautious  use 
of  it  at  some  future  time — .ifter  he  has  given  it  due 
consideration. 

393.  General  Care  of  a  Tractor. — All  that  applies 
to  the  care  of  an  engine  might  be  repeated  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tractor,  and"  to  this  may  be  added  such 
shelter  and  protection  as  any  reasonable  man  would 
expect  to  give  any  sort  of  transmission  machinery 
which  operated  between  his  investment  and  the  profits 
he  expected  from  it.  Some  tractors  are  weatherproof 
— for  a  time.  The  writer  knows  of  none  that  are  in- 
jured by  reasonable  protection  when  idle  or  that  are 
improved  by  exposure  to  every  passing  storm. 


312         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


to 

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CHAPTER    XVIII. 
POWER    TRANSMISSION. 

394.  An  Important  Problem. — The  best  engine  in 
the  world  is  of  no  value  on  the  farm  or  anywhere  else 
if  the  power  it  develops  cannot  be  transmitted  to 
some  other  machine.  Every  one  knows  this,  but  not 
every  one  realizes  what  a  difference  there  may  be  in 
the  manner  of  transmission  or  how  easily  the  power 
that  is  developed  in  the  engine  may  be  thrown  away 
while  conducting  it  to  the  w^ork. 

395.  Methods  in  Use. — Shafts,  belts,  and  gear 
wheels  are  the  means  most  commonly  used  for  trans- 
mitting power  from  its  source  to  the  place  where  it 
can  be  converted  into  work.  Nearly  all  the  rarer 
methods  are  merely  modifications  of  some  of  these. 
For  instance,  the  belt  drive  may  be  accomplished  by 
a  rope  or  by  chain  and  sprocket  wheels  as  well  as  by 
means  of  the  usual  form  of  belt  and  pulley ;  gear 
wheels  may  include  friction  as  well  as  tooth  gearing ; 
shafts  may  refer  to  revolving  rods  or  to  various  forms 
of  levers. 

396.  Shafting. — Usually  when  we  speak  of  shafting 
it  refers  to  rods  which  revolve  and  carry  pulleys  or 
gear  wheels  somewhere  along  their  length.  They  are 
usually  of  metal  and  the  better  the  material  the  less 
the  shaft  will  cost  in  power.  Cheap  shafting  is  one  of 
the  most  serious  means  of  wasting  power  in  the  trans- 
mission. 

397.  Why   Poor   Shafting   Does   Not   Pay. — Shaft- 

313 


314 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


ing  should  transmit  to  the  pulleys  or  wheels  that  it 
carries  whatever  working  energy  it  receives,  less  that 
amount  consumed  by  friction  at  its  own  bearings. 
Where  a  steel  shaft  of  the  best  quality  requires  i 
H.  P.  of  an  engine  to  revolve  it  a  given  number  of 
times  per  minute  a  cheap  iron  shaft  of  equal  strength 
would  Aveigh  nine  times  as  much  and  require  some- 
thing like  a  28  H.  P.  engine  to  operate  it  at  the  same 
rate.     As  the  power  consumed  by  friction  is  a  con- 


FiG.    96. — Countershaft    and    Hangers    Ready    for    Belts. 

stant  expense  while  running,  it  will  be  seen  that  cheap 
shafting  is  the  most  expensive  in  the  world. 

Shafting  should  be  of  the  very  best  material  in 
order  to  reduce  friction  by  reducing  the  size.  It 
should  be  absolutely  straight  because  it  requires  a 
good  deal  of  power  to  spring  even  a  two-inch  line- 
shaft  into  line  once  during  each  of  its  200  or  300 
revolutions  per  minute.  All  of  this  power  comes  out 
of  the  engine,  but  the  strain  is  divided  between  the 
engine,  the  shaft  bearings,  and  the  belt.  A  shaft 
should  be  somewhat  elastic  or  it  will  quickly  crystal- 
lize and  break.  If  possible  the  driven  pulley  should 
be  toward  its  center  and  between  two  bearings.     By 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  315 

all  means,  if  it  can  be  done,  avoid  applying  the  power 
on  one  end  and  taking  work  off  at  the  other.  When 
this  must  be  done  on  a  long  line  the  shaft  should  be 
composed  of  lengths  decreasing  in  diameter,  and  the 
power  should  be  applied  at  the  heavy  end.  A  lighter 
shaft  can  be  used  if  the  strain  is  applied  between  bear- 
ings instead  of  at  the  end,  and  friction  thus  avoided. 

398.  General  Shaft  Wisdom. — If  possible,  heavy 
shafts  should  have  their  bearings  rest  upon  posts  with 
a  ground  connection,  as  there  is  always  more  or  less 
spring  in  any  ordinary  floor.  Avoid  shifting  weights 
on  the  floor  above  long  shafting  that  is  hung  from 
the  ceiling  as  the  floor  is  constantly  springing  them 
out  of  line. 

Line  shafting  hangers  should  not  be  over  8  feet 
apart,  and  if  the  shaft  is  light  they  must  be  closer. 
Even  the  smallest  engine  needs  not  less  than  a  i  3/16 
shaft.  Approximately,  the  horse-power  a  good  shaft 
ought  to  stand  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  cube 
of  its  diameter  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  min- 
ute and  dividing  the  result  by  82  for  steel  and  no 
for  iron.  The  amount  of  power  that  can  be  trans- 
mitted by  two  shafts  of  similar  quality  varies  directly 
with  the  speed  of  revolution  and  w^th  the  cubes  of 
their  diameters. 

The  twisting  strain  upon  a  shaft  is  greatest  near 
the  main  drive  and,  aside  from  friction,  is  zero  at  the 
bearings ;  hence,  the  nearer  the  main  drive  is  to  the 
bearings  the  more  nearly  will  this  strain  be  counter- 
acted. 

A  disregard  of  any  of  these  principles  not  only 
wastes  power  but  delivers  an  unsteady,  jerky  energy 
to  the  machine  driven,  and  affects  both  its  life  and 
efficiency.  In  many  instances  the  shifting  of  the  main 
drive  from  the  end  of  a  shaft  to  a  point  between  two 


3i6         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

bearings  has   been   known  to   overcome   trouble  that 
had  previously  prevented  the  operation  of  a  machine. 

399.  Balancing  Pulleys. — If  the  shaft  is  a  long  or 
a  light  one  the  question  of  balancing  weights  and 
strains  along  its  length  may  become  specially  im- 
portant. The  heavier  driven  machines  should  take 
their  power  from  the  shaft  at  points  not  far  from 
where  it  is  applied,  and  two  heavy  machines  should 
be  set  on  opposite  sides  of  the  drive  pulley.  This  is 
true  to  some  extent  whether  both  machines  are  to  be 
run  at  the  same  time  or  not,  since  the  pulleys  driving 
them  will  be  heavy  and  this  arrangement  will  better 
distribute  the  weight.  A  heavy  belt  pull  or  even  a 
great  pulley  weight  at  the  end  or  anywhere  along  the 
line  that  is  not  properly  supported  by  the  bearings 
may  throw  the  whole  shaft  out  of  line. 

400.  Speed  of  Shafts. — The  relative  speed  of  the 
driven  and  the  driving  pulleys  of  course  determines 
that  of  the  shaft,  as  one  of  the  uses  of  the  latter  is 
to  temper  the  speed  to  the  machine.  Where  only  one 
machine  is  driven  from  the  shaft  the  problem  is  easy, 
providing  the  speed  of  the  engine  and  that  required  by 
the  machine  are  known.  (See  rule  elsewhere.)  If 
several  machines  of  different  speed  are  to  be  run  by 
the  same  shaft  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  take  an 
average  between  the  highest  and  lowest  speed  re- 
quired and  then  make  up  the  additional  difference  by 
varying  the  size  of  the  pulleys.  This  avoids  ex- 
tremely small  or  extremely  large  pulleys. 

401.  Size  of  Pulleys. — To  determine  the  size  of 
pulley  needed  on  shaft  when  there  are  given  the  speed 
and  diameter  of  the  engine  pulley  and  speed  of  shaft, 
multiply  engine  pulley  speed  by  its  diameter  and  di- 
vide by  the  speed  of  the  shaft. 

402.  Pulleys. — Pulleys  are  made  of  cast  iron,  steel, 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  317 

wood  and  paper;  and,  of  the  four,  iron  is  in  more 
common  use  than  all  of  the  others  united.  It  is  more 
compact  and  neater  than  wood,  and  cheaper  than 
steel,  although  a  wooden  pulley  can  be  safely  speeded 
up  considerably  higher  than  can  an  iron  one  of  sim- 
ilar size  and  design.  Wooden  pulleys  have  the  ad- 
vantage,  too,   of   holding  the   belt   better.     They  are 


Fig.  97. — Construction  of  Split  Wood  Pulley. 

usually  made,  in  the  larger  sizes,  in  the  split  form  ; 
that  is,  they  can  be  divided  into  halves,  secured  upon 
a  shaft  without  disturbing  other  wheels,  and  then 
bolted  together.  Iron  pulleys  may  also  be  obtained  in 
the  same  form  and,  if  large,  are  safer  than  when  cast 
solid,  on  account  of  possible  defects  in  the  latter 
through  the  contraction  of  the  iron. 

403.     Straight  and  Crown  Face. — Iron  pulleys   are 
usually  made  crowning,  that  is,  slightly  oval,  across  the 


3i8 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


face,  where  there  is  no  belt-shifting  to  do,  as  a  belt  will 
always  hunt  the  high  place  in  the  pulley,  if  there  is 
one,-  to  run  on,  and  by  giving  it  a  high  place  in  the 
center  of  the  pulley  it  can  easily  be  kept  there.  Some 
machinists  object  to  the  crowning  face  because  it 
throws  the  entire  load  upon  the  center  of  the  belt 
instead  of  distributing  it,  but  nearly  always  where  a 


Fig.  98. — Method  of  Covering  or  Lagging   Pulley, 

pulley  is  ordered  one  with  a  crowning  face  will  be 
sent  unless  the  straight  is  specified.  Where  belt- 
shifting  is  necessary  the  pulley  must  be  straight- 
faced. 

404.  Use  of  Pulleys. — Pulleys  are  used  to  convey 
power,  to  change  speed,  and  to  alter  direction  or  form 
of  motion.  They  are  usually  used  in  connection  with 
a  belt,  but  also  in  friction  transmission  and  occasion- 
ally with  crank-pins  and  connecting  rods.  More  than 
90  per   cent,   of  power   transmission,   it   is  estimated, 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  319 

is  effected  in  America  by  means  of  the  pulley  and  belt. 

405.  Covering  Iron  Pulleys. — Frequently  an  iron 
pulley  does  not  hold  the  belt  well  and  a  great  deal 
of  power  is  lost  in  slippage.  To  overcome  this  pul- 
leys are  often  faced  with  leather.  One  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  clean  the  pulley  thoroughly,  coat  with  coach 
varnish,  then  a  layer  of  soft  paper  and  a  second  coat 
of  varnish.  Put  on  the  leather,  cut  to  proper  size  and 
length,  and  thoroughly  clean;  then  lace  loosely,  as  in 
Fig.  98 ;  slip  into  place,  and  tighten  lacing. 

Another  wa}^  roughen  face  of  pulley  with  cape 
chisel.  Lace  the  proper  length  and  width  of  cotton 
belting  loosely  and  soak  well  in  pail  of  paste  made  of 
cold  water  and  flour.  Slip  this  upon  pulley  and  draw 
lacing  tightly  as  possible.  Put  on  more  layers  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way,  taking  care  to  break  joints  each 
time.  Then  drive  in  Buffalo  belt  fasteners  here  and 
there  to  clinch  against  pulley.  As  the  covering  dries 
it  will  shrink  and  hug  the  pulley  nicely. 

In  both  cases,  particularly  the  latter,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  diameter  of  the  pulley  has  been 
materially  increased  and  the  speed  must  be  regulated 
accordingly. 

At  least  25%  may  sometimes  be  added  to  the  power 
transmitted  by  covering  an  iron  pulley,  as  iron  has  a 
tendency  to  polish  quickly  and  refuse  to  hold  the  belt. 
Cement  and  glue  will  not  hold  a  leather  covering  on 
iron. 

406.  How  Secured  on  Shaft. — Pulleys  are  secured 
to  the  shaft  either  by  key  seat  or  set  screw.  If  the 
former,  the  key  should  be  the  exact  width  of  the  key- 
way  and  the  latter,  cut  in  both  the  shaft  and  the 
pulley,  must  match  accurately;  otherwise  the  key  can- 
not be  driven  tight,  the  pulley  will  be  forced  away 
from  the  center  and  will  soon  work  loose.     If  secured 


320         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

by  a  set  screw  the  latter  should  be  kept  tight  enough 
to  avoid  slipping  as,  after  a  set  screw  has  been  allowed 
to  slip  a  few  times  and  thread  the  shaft,  it  will  never 
hold  as  well. 

407.  The  Dangerous  Set  Screw. — Perhaps  no 
simple  thing  about  machinery  is  more  dangerous  than 
a  projecting  set-screw  head  or  similar  projection  on  a 
revolving  shaft.  When  in  rapid  motion  it  cannot  be 
seen,  and  some  one,  while  oiling  a  bearing,  is  almost 
certain  to  have  the  clothing  caught  and  be  drawn  upon 
the  shaft  or  at  least  have  a  finger  or  a  hand  destroyed 
by  it.  Always,  if  it  can  possibly  be  done,  have  every 
set  screw  deeply  recessed  and  use  a  socket  wrench. 
Test  them  frequently  until  they  become  thoroughly 
fixed,  as  the  expansion  of  heat  often  loosens  them ; 
then,  once  they  are  thoroughly  settled  in  their  place, 
avoid  disturbing  them  if  possible. 

408.  Other  Pulley  Dangers. — Pulleys  out  of  bal- 
ance on  the  shaft  run  with  a  wobble  that  is  ruinous  to 
belts  and  machinery,  and  destructive  of  power.  This 
may  occur  if  the  pulley  does  not  fit  the  shaft  or  if 
the  key  does  not  fit  the  keyway ;  or  the  pulley  may 
have  been  improperly  cast  or  bored.  A  wabbling  pul- 
ley should  be  fixed  or  else  replaced ;  it  costs  too  much 
to  retain  it. 

Pulleys  having  a  thick  or  thin  edge  at  one  side 
while  true  at  the  other  may  seem  to  stand  up  well 
when  at  rest,  but  run  decidedly  wrong  wdien  set  in 
motion. 

Small,  high  speed  pulleys  full  of  dust  are  dangerous ; 
so  are  pulleys  used  as  convenient  shelves  while  remov- 
ing nuts  from  some  near-by  machine.  Never  permit 
anything  to  be  laid  on  any  part  of  a  pulley.  If  left 
there  it  may  be  hurled  against  someone  with  almost 
the  force  of  a  bullet  when  the  pulley  starts. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  321 

409.  Tight  and  Loose  Pulleys. — The  tight  and 
loose  pulley  consists  of  two  pulleys,  side  by  side,  one 
of  which  revolves  with  the  shaft  and  the  other  re- 
volves upon  it.  By  shifting  a  belt  from  one  to  the 
other  the  shaft  and  its  machinery  may  be  started  and 
stopped  at  pleasure  without  disturbing  the  operation 
of  the  engine  or  of  any  other  machine  belted  to  the 
same  shaft.     It  is  a  necessity  in  cases  where  one  ma- 


FiG.  99. — Countershaft  Assembly  With  Tight,  Loose  and  Stepped 

Pulleys. 

chine  of  several,  belted  to  a  line  shaft,  is  frequently 
to  be  thrown  in  and  out  of  motion. 

410.  Its  Love  for  Trouble. — The  loose  pulley  is 
generally  thought  a  necessary  nuisance,  but  much  of 
the  trouble  comes  from  carelessness  and  neglect.  The 
hubs  should  have  an  oil  reservoir  of  some  sort  with  a 
tight  cover,  as  fully  half  of  the  oil  used  on  most  loose 
pulleys  is  wasted.  Then  the  pulley  should  be  started 
in  right  when  new.  First,  it  should  be  removed  from 
the  shaft  and  cleaned  out  thoroughly;  then  oiled;  then 
returned  to  shaft  and  revolved  on  shaft  under  belt  for 
a  half  hour.  Remove,  wipe  off  black  coating  of  oil, 
dirt  and  iron  particles ;  then,  after  it  is  clean,  oil 
and  replace,  and  run  again.     Repeat  this  until  pulley 


Z22.         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

is  absolutely  clean;  then  it  will  take  on  a  smooth 
polish  or  glaze.  If  properly  oiled  it  will  then  run 
smooth  and  true  for  years ;  otherwise  it  will  wear  off 
at  the  edges  in  the  shape  of  an  hour  glass,  and  speed- 
ily develop  a  wobble  that  will  render  all  the  other 
machinery  silent  by  comparison.  A  good  many  of  the 
loose  pulley's  troubles  are  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
not  considered  of  enough  importance  to  merit  atten- 
tion until  it  has  developed  the  ability  to  out-clatter 
everything  else  in  the  place. 

411.  Cone  Pulleys;  Their  Use.— Cone  or  stepped 
pulleys  are  sometimes  used  on  farm  machinery  for 
the  purpose  of  changing  the  speed  of  a  shaft  by 
shifting  a  belt  from  one  section  to  another,  but  are 
in  more  common  use  on  lathes  and  similar  machinery 
of  the  shop.  Usually  connection  is  made  between  the 
two  pullcA^s  by  means  of  a  belt,  though  friction  pul- 
leys are  frequently  used  in  this  way.  The  same  prin- 
ciple is  made  use  of  with  spur  gear  wheels  in  chang- 
ing the  speed  of  traction  engines  and  automobiles. 

412.  Home  Made  Pulleys.— Sometimes  one  is 
tempted  to  utilize  a  rainy  day  and  a  few  pieces  of 
plank  in  making  a  wooden  pulley,  and  so  save  the 
outlay  of  several  dollars.  Occasionally  this  is  entirely 
successful,  but  it  should  not  be  undertaken  unless  one 
has  facilities  for  turning  off  the  face  of  the  pulley 
absolutely  true  and  for  centering  it  accurately  when 
boring  it  out.  A  good  many  home  made  pulleys 
are  now  in  daily  use  and  their  owners  point  them  out 
with  pride  as  doing  their  work  all  right  at  only  a 
fraction  of  the  cost  of  a  "boughten"  pulley.  The  fact 
is,  they  cost  less  to  obtain  in  the  first  place,  but  they 
are  most  of  them  wasting  their  price  many  times  every 
season  in  strained  shafting,  strained  belts,  worn  bear- 
ings and  lost  power.      Not  one  person  in  a  hundred 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  323 

can  construct  and  bore  out  a  wooden  pulley  that  will 
be  absolutely  true  in  face,  bore  and  balance,  unless  he 
has  better  facilities  for  that  kind  of  work  than  are 
available  on  the  average  farm. 

413.  Bearings. — The  ideal  bearing  is  a  perfectly 
round  hole  surrounding  an  absolutely  round  shaft,  and 
with  just  enough  room  between  the  two  for  a  film 
of  the  proper  lubricant.  If  this  could  be  secured  in 
the  first  place  it  is  evident  that  it  could  not  be  re- 
tained because  the  pull  upon  any  machinery  doing 
work  is  in  some  one  direction  more  than  another,  and 
the  hole  could  not  long  remain  round.  Bearings  for 
light,  high  speed  machinery  are  generally  made  of 
phosphor-bronze  or  some  such  high-test,  unwearable 
metal,  but  for  heavier  and  slower  running  machines, 
babbitt  is  usually  preferred,  as  it  does  not  cut  the 
journals  and  it  is  easily  replaced  when  worn.  Bear- 
ings of  the  same  material  as  the  shaft  are  not  found 
suitable.  They  develop  more  friction  and  are  more 
likely  to  abrade  than  are  two  metals  of  different  hard- 
ness. 

414.  Roller  Bearings. — Roller  bearings  have  been 
proved  by  experiment  to  require  less  than  half  the 
power  to  overcome  their  friction  that  is  required  for 
ordinary  babbitt  bearings.  While  their  use  is  being 
extended  somewhat  it  is  still  of  only  limited  applica- 
tion because  they  are  rather  costly  and  difficult  to 
keep  in  order,  on  account  of  their  reluctance  to  re- 
main parallel.  In  theory  their  contact  with  the  shaft 
is  a  line,  but  in  practice  it  is  a  narrow  parallelogram, 
a  much  larger  surface  than  that  presented  in  ball 
bearings.  They  have  the  advantage  of  a  much  longer 
bearing  and  can  therefore  carry  a  heavier  load  and 
carry  it  steadier. 

415.  Ball    Bearings. — Ball    bearings    consist    of    a 


324         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

number  of  hardened  steel  balls  confined  in  grooved 
raceways  (Fig.  102)  and  presenting  but  a  small  part 
of  their  surface  to  the  journal.  As  formerly  employed 
they  were  quite  small,  and  sometimes  gave  trouble  by 
jamming  so  as  not  to  revolve  freely,  then  the  sides 
soon  wore  flat.  Improved  methods  now  in  use  pro- 
duce them  very  accurately  formed,  and  they  are  some- 
times made  as  large  as  4  inches  in  diameter  and  ca- 
pable of  sustaining  a  load  of  50  tons.  Theoretically, 
their  bearing  surface  is  a  point  only,  but  in  practice 
it  is  a  small  circle.  They  are  calipered  and  accurately 
sorted  as  to  size  so  that  all  fit  accurately  into  the 
same  groove.  Those  to  be  used  for  shafting  are  fitted 
with  an  adapter  to  permit  easy  assembling. 

When  cheap  bearings  are  used  one  of  a  set  of  balls 
may  break  and  the  sharp,  edges  are  likely  to  do  seri- 
ous mischief  to  the  rest  of  the  set.  Of  late  their  use 
has  been  greatly  extended,  because  of  improvements  in 
design,  and  they  are  in  quite  common  use  in  various 
machines  which  the  gasoline  engine  is  now  operating 
on  the  farm,  as  well  as  in  line  shafting  applications. 

416.  What  Babbitt  Metal  Is. — Babbitt  metal, 
named  after  its  inventor,  the  late  Isaac  Babbitt,  is 
somewhat  variable  in  composition  but  is  made  up 
principally  of  block  tin  and  antimony.  In  the  better 
grades  a  little  copper  is  added,  while  that  of  an  in- 
ferior quality  contains  a  little  zinc.  This  causes  the 
boxes  to  heat  more  or  less,  and  is  not  so  durable  as  the 
true  babbitt.  About  5  parts  tin  to  5  of  antimony  and 
I  of  copper  is  the  usual  proportion.  The  result  is  a 
soft  white  metal  that  is  easily  fused,  and  that  has 
the  peculiar  property  of  generating  little  friction. 

417.  Preparing  Boxes  for  Babbitting. — All  the  old 
babbitt,  dirt  and  grease  must  be  removed  and  the  box 
washed   out  with  gasoline.     The  box  must  be  thor- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


325 


oughly  dry  or  steam  will  form  and  cause  trouble. 
Bolt  the  box  into  position  so  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  throwing  it  out  of  alignment  after  the  babbitting 


Fig.  100. — Solid  Box  Bearing  or  Pillow  Block. 

is  done.  If  the  box  is  solid,  that  is,  not  cast  in  two 
pieces  bolted  together,  wrap  a  paper  smoothly  around 
the  shaft  and  gum  the  lapped  edges  fast.    Otherwise, 


Fig.    ioi. — Sells    Roller    Bearing    Shaft    Box    Fits    Standard 
Hangers. 

the  cooling  metal  will  shrink  so  tightly  about  the 
shaft  as  to  hold  it  fast  and  make  it  necessary  to  break 
the  box  or  subject  shaft  and  all  to  the  babbitt  furnace. 
The  ends  of  the  paper  should  project  a  little  beyond 


326 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


the  box.  Block  up  the  shaft  so  that  it  is  properly 
aligned  and  central  in  the  box,  then  close  up  the  ends 
with  stiff  putty  or  clay.  Vent  holes  must  be  left  at 
the  top  for  the  escape  of  air  and  for  pouring  the  hot 
metal  into  the  box.  The  oil  hole  is  sometimes  used 
for  this  purpose ;  if  not,  insert  a  wooden  plug  through 


RETAINER 


Fig. 


102. — Sectional  View  of  New  Departure  Bal 
Hanger  Box. 


Bearini?  Shaft 


the  oil  hole  in  the  casting  with  the  end  resting  on 
the  shaft,  and  so  save  the  bother  of  drilling  it  out 
afterwards.  A  wall  of  putty  or  clay  should  be  made 
around  each  vent-hole  to  keep  it  clear  of  flowing 
metal. 

418.     Preparing  the  Babbitt. — A  plumber's  furnace 
is  convenient  for  melting  babbitt,  as  it  is  portable  and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  327 

the  metal  needs  to  be  poured  hot.  Some  boxes  re- 
quire three  or  four  pounds  of  metal,  and  the  ladle 
must  be  large  enough  to  hold  the  full  amount  for  one 
pouring  as  it  will  not  unite  with  fresh  metal  when 
once  set.  Heat  the  babbitt  until  it  will  brown  or 
char  wood.  Test  the  temperature  by  inserting  a  pine 
stick  occasionally. 

419.  Casting  the  Bearing.— When  the  metal  is  hot 
enough  pour  it  as  fast  as  it  will  run  through  the  hole 
and  without  any  breaks  until  it  begins  to  come  up 
through  the  air  holes.  Do  not  stop  if  some  is  spilled. 
It  can^ easily  be  gathered  up  when  cold.  Keep  the  hot 
metal  running  in  a  full  stream  into  the  box  and  give 
attention  to  nothing  else. 

After  it  is  filled  and  cool  remove  from  the  shaft, 
clean  off  the  clay  or  putty,  ream  out  ihe  oil  hole  with 
the  sharp  end  of  a  file,  trim  off  the  edges  and,  start- 
ing at  the  oil  hole,  cut  a  groove  slanting  down  and 
across  each  side.  These  are  for  the  oil  to  lie  in  against 
the  shaft,  and  must  not  be  forgotten. 

420.  Babbitting  a  Split  Box.— The  box  is  prepared 
in  the  same  way  excepting  that  pieces  of  cardboard 
or  sheet-iron  must  be  placed  between  the  top  and 
bottom  half  of  the  casting.  These  should  be  wide 
enough  to  rest  tightly  against  the  shaft  and  holes 
should  be  cut  through  them  corresponding  with  the 
bolt  holes  through  which  the  two  parts  of  the  box  are 
bolted  together.  Enough  of  these  shims  or  liners 
should  be^  used  to  allow  for  taking  up  the  box  after 
the  bearings  have  become  somewhat  worn.  Notches 
should  be  cut  in  the  ends  of  these  liners  next  the  shaft 
to  allow  the  metal  to  run  down  into  the  lower  half  of 
the  box.  Rapid  pouring  is  even  more  essential  in 
babbitting  a  two  part  box  than  in  a  solid  one. 

When  the  metal  is  cold  loosen  the  bolts  a  little  and 


328         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

with  a  sharp  cold  chisel  break  the  two  halves  apart; 
then  remove  the  top  half  and  with  a  file  trim  off  the 
edges,  cut  off  the  pouring  gates  with  the  cold  chisel, 
file  smoothly  and  with  a  round  nosed  cold  chisel  cut 
the  oil  grooves.  The  job  is  now  complete  and,  after 
removing  the  paper  from  the  shaft  and  smoothing  any 
roughness  noticed  about  it  with  emery  cloth,  the  box 
and  shaft  should  be  thoroughly  oiled  and  returned  to 
place. 

In  bolting  a  split  box  together  use  the  shims  to 
build  up  the  shoulders  enough,  so  that  the  strain  of 
the  bolts  when  drawn  down  will  come  upon  the 
shoulders  and  not  upon  the  shaft.  This  is  of  vital  im- 
portance; otherwise,  the  shaft  will  either  heat  or  re- 
fuse to  turn  at  all.  It  is  also  important  to  put  the 
same  thickness  of  shims  at  both  sides,  so  that  the 
stress  on  the  bearing  be  alike  all  around.  As  the 
babbitt  wears  the  shims  may  be  reduced  either  by 
removing  part  or  by  using  thinner  ones,  but  they 
should  always  be  reduced  on  both  sides  of  the  shaft 
alike.  The  bearings  should  hold  the  shaft  firmly,  but 
must  not  bind  it. 

Instead  of  casting  the  top  of  the  box  solid  some  pre- 
fer to  fasten  a  strip  of  leather  in  the  top  around  the 
oil  hole  before  pouring  and  then  fill  this  with  wool 
as  an  oil  holder,  from  any  part  of  which  the  spiral  oil 
grooves  may  be  cut. 

Do  not  attempt  to  use  too  small  a  melting  pot,  as 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  use  up  all  of  the  metal 
melted  without  some  of  it  becoming  too  cold  to  run 
well.  More  than  is  needed  for  the  job  should  be 
melted,  the  amount  depending  a  little  upon  how  con- 
venient the  furnace  may  be  placed  in  relation  to  the 
job.  On  the  other  hand,  too  large  a  melting  pot  is 
heavy  and  inconvenient  to  handle.     For  the  ordinary 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         329 

run  of  farm  work  one  holding  five  pounds  would  prob- 
ably be  about  right. 

Do  not  attempt  to  make  a  catch-up  and  hurry-up 
job  of  babbitting.  The  bearings  are  of  enough  im- 
portance to  merit  careful  work  and  a  good  job,  once 
done,  need  not  be  repeated  for  a  long  time,  if  the  oil- 
ing is  attended  to. 


•  CHAPTER    XIX. 

BELTS   AND   BELTING. 

421.  Reasons  for  Using  Belts. — While  the  transmis- 
sion of  power  by  means  of  belts  has  long  been  known 
to  the  mechanical  world,  its  wide  application  is  due  to 
America,  European  machinists  until  recently  having 
favored  gear  wheels.  In  this  country  more  than  90% 
of  all  power  used  is  transmitted  by  means  of  belts  in 
some  form. 

Belts  are  almost  noiseless.  Power  may  be  trans- 
mitted by  them  at  much  greater  distance  than  by  di- 
rect gears.  There  is  less  risk  from  accidents.  They 
are  simpler  and  more  convenient,  applicable  to  a 
greater  variety  of  conditions  and,  in  case  of  a  break- 
down or  a  change  in  the  position  of  machines,  they 
may  be  repaired  or  refitted  w^ithout  sending  to  some 
distant  factory  for  a  machinist.  For  this  last  reason 
they  are  particularly  valuable  on  the  farm. 

422.  A  Few  Drawbacks. — In  one  respect  belts  are 
expensive ;  they  are  wasteful  of  power.  The  move- 
ment of  gear  wheels,  properly  set  up,  is  absolute.  One 
revolution  of  a  12-inch  wheel  will  drive  its  mate  a 
distance  equal  to  its  own  circumference  each  revolu- 
tion. Belts  will  slip ;  and  while  the  per  cent,  of  waste 
from  slippage  ought  not  to  exceed  2%  there  is  no 
question  but  that  there  is  a  much  greater  loss  than 
this  under  average  working  conditions  and  that  if  the 
belts  are  not  closely  watched  the  loss  is  liable  to  be 
quite  serious. 

330 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  331 

423.  Belt  Essentials. — The  value  of  any  belt  de- 
pends upon  four  special  qualities;  strength,  durability, 
absence  of  stretch  and  pulley  grip.  In  special  cases 
other  things  must  be  considered ;  resistance  to  mois- 
ture, flexibility,  etc.  The  first  four  qualities  are  neces- 
sary, however,  in  any  belt,  and  material  which  has 
not  a  fair  amount  of  all  of  these  is  not  suitable  for 
belting. 

424.  Leather  Belts. — Oak-tanned  leather  is  the  best 
of  all  for  belts — it  being  strongest,  most  durable  and 
best  in  nearly  every  way.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of 
coming  in  short  lengths,  but  these  are  so  perfectly 
united  in  the  modern  methods  of  belt-making  that  the 
joints  can  hardly  be  found  and  in  most  cases  do  little 
harm. 

425.  Rubber  Belting. — Rubber  belts  are  made  of 
several  plies  of  cotton  duck  alternating  with  rubber 
composition,  and  then  vulcanized.  Their  strength  de- 
pends upon  that  of  the  fabric  out  of  which  they  are 
built  up,  and  is  something  of  an  uncertain  quantity. 
They  have  the  advantage  when  new  of  being  water- 
proof, and  may  be  made  in  any  length  with  but  one 
joint  or  even  without  any,  endless  belts  being  supplied 
to  order  by  any  belting  house.  Oil  of  almost  any 
kind  is  ruinous  to  them  and  must  not  be  allowed  to 
come  in  contact  with  them.  Rubber  belts  are  spe- 
cially valuable  in  the  presence  of  steam  and  they  stand 
a  greater  amount  of  both  heat  and  cold  than  leather. 
They  are  less  liable  to  slip  on  the  pulley.  In  strength 
a  four-ply  rubber  belt  is  counted  about  the  same  as  a 
single  thickness  leather  belt  of  the  same  width.  The 
first  cost  of  a  rubber  belt  is  considerably  less  than  for 
a  leather  belt  of  equal  capacity. 

426.  Canvas  Belting. — Canvas  belting  is  about  the 
same  strencrth  as  rubber  and  is  liehter.     It  is  much 


332         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

used  in  connection  with  thresher  engines  but  is  less 
suitable  between  two  fixed  pulleys  because  it  stretches 
and  contracts  with  the  weather. 

427.  Care  of  Belts. — The  efficiency  of  a  belt  de- 
pends fully  as  much  upon  its  care  as  on  its  original 
quality.  They  should  be  kept  pliable  and  reasonably 
clean.  A  belt  run  too  tight  or  under  an  overload  will 
give  out  first  besides  causing  trouble  with  hot  boxes, 
broken  pulleys  and  sprung  shafting.  It  has  been  found 
by  experiment  that  as  high  as  30%  more  power  and 
considerably  greater  wear  can  be  obtained  from  a 
leather  belt  by  running  it  with  the  grain  or  hair  side 
toward  the  pulley.  If  this  is  not  done  the  less  pliable 
grain  side  is  likely  to  crack  from  being  strained  over 
the  pulleys  and,  as  this  is  the  strongest  side,  the  belt 
is  seriously  weakened.  A  cemented  or  lapped  leather 
belt  should  be  turned  so  that  the  pulley  runs  of¥  and 
not  on  the  point  of  the  lap.  All  belts  should  be  some- 
what narrower  than  the  pulley  upon  which  they  run 
as  few  things  strain  a  belt  worse  than  projecting  over 
the  edge  at  one  side  or  the  other  and  so  being  pulled 
across  the  rim. 

Some  belts  do  not  stretch  alike  at  both  edges.  If 
one  inclines  to  climb  continually  toward  one  side  of 
the  pulley,  reverse  it.  If  it  still  runs  on  the  same  side 
the  fault  is  in  the  pulley,  the  shafting  or  the  align- 
ment; if  toward  the  opposite  side  it  is  in  the  belt. 

Belts  should  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from  mois- 
ture and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances oil  a  rubber  belt.  Put  the  oil  on  the 
bearing.  The  practice  of  throwing  oil  and  powdered 
rosin  on  any  belt,  particularly  rubber,  to  make  it  stick 
to  the  pulley  is  almost  certain  to  shorten  the  life  of 
the  belt  by  months  if  not  years. 

428.  Belt     Dressings. — Avoid     belt     dressings     as 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         333 

much  as  possible.  As  a  rule  the  belt  that  requires  the 
use  of  a  sticky  dressing  to  make  it  adhere  to  the  pul- 
ley is  suffering  from  some  form  of  abuse,  such  as 
overload  or  faulty  drive.  Many  of  the  dressings  on 
the  market  are  decidedly  injurious.  Seldom  if  ever 
are  any  of  them  needed  except  for  one  of  two  things ; 
to  keep  the  leather  in  soft,  pliable  condition  or  else 
to  tide  over  some  emergency  strain  that,  if  avoidable, 
should  never  be  placed  upon  the  belt.  A  hard,  glazed 
surface  on  a  belt  is  a  pretty  sure  indication  of  some 
form  of  injurious  dressing,  though  it  is  not  always 
anything  that  has  been  put  upon  the  belt  intention- 
ally. It  may  be  the  result  of  some  dust  and  moisture 
combination  in  the  air,  and  occasionally  it  means  over- 
work. In  either  event  it  ought  not  to  be  there.  It  will 
always  be  found  more  difficult  to  keep  belts  clean 
than  to  keep  them  soft  and  it  is  fully  as  important; 
in  fact,  if  they  are  kept  clean  and  not  abused  in  any 
other  way  they  are  more  than  likely  to  be  soft.  If 
it  is  found  necessary  after  cleaning  it  to  soften  a 
leather  belt,  use  something  with  a  neat's-foot  oil  foun- 
dation, but  not  mineral  oils.  If  a  dressing  is  found  nec- 
essary to  hold  a  rubber  belt  to  its  place — don't  use  it ; 
instead,  correct  the  load  or  the  alignment.  A  belt 
should  be  wide  enough  to  transmit  twice  the  horse- 
power required  of  it. 

429.  Size  of  Belt  Required. — The  breaking  strain 
of  the  best  leather  belting  is  given  at  3,360  pounds  per 
square  inch  of  cross  section  and,  figuring  out  the  nec- 
essary factor  of  safety,  the  safe  working  strength  is 
counted  but  one-tenth  of  that  or  33  pounds  per  square 
inch  or  about  41  pounds  per  inch  in  width  of  belting 
ys  inch  thick.  This  allowable  strain  in  practice  is 
still  further  reduced  to  from  30  to  35  pounds  by 
the  best  authorities,  presumably  to  allow  for  the  ordi- 


334         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

nary  range  of  strength  to  be  expected  even  in  a  good 
quality  of  belting.  Some  adhere,  however,  to  the 
higher  estimate.  A  belt  one  inch  wide  traveling  800 
feet  per  minute  is  figured  to  transmit  i  H.  P.  and 
each  additional  inch  should  add  i  H.  P.  if  conditions 
are  favorable.     The  pulling  power  of  a  belt  depends 


Fig.  103. — A  Study  In  Belt  Contacts.  Two  Equal  Pulleys,  a  and 
b  Have  a  Belt  Grip  of  180  Degrees.  When  Two  Unequal 
Pulleys  Are  Used  the  Largest  One,  d,  Gains  in  Transmission 
Efficiency,  Because  Belt  Contact  Is  More  Than  Half  the 
Circumference ;  the  Smaller  One,  c,  Looses  Because  Belt 
Contact  Is  Less  Than  180  Degrees. 

Upon  its  frictional  surface  presented  to  the  pulley  and 
its  pulling  strength.  A  double  leather,  six-ply  rubber, 
or  six-ply  cotton  belt  will  safely  transmit  from  50  to 
75  per  cent,  power,  the  usual  rule  being  one  horse- 
power for  each  one  inch  width  at  a  speed  of  550  feet 
per  minute. 

430.  A  Convenient  Rule. — To  avoid  calculating  the 
number  of  feet  per  minute  that  a  belt  is  traveling  a 
convenient  rule  is  to  multiply  the  diameter  of  the  pul- 
ley in  inches  by  its  number  of  revolutions  per  min- 
ute and  this  by  the  width  of  the  belt  in  inches.     Di- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  335 

vide  this  product  by  3,300  for  single  belting  and  by 
2,100  for  double.  The  quotient  will  be  the  required 
horse-power. 

431.  Length  of  Belts. — Within  reasonable  limits  a 
long  belt  will  transmit  more  power  than  a  short  one, 
and  can  be  run  much  looser.  To  find  the  length  of 
belt  required  between  two  given  pulleys  add  the  diam- 
eters of  the  two  pulleys  and  divide  by  2;  then  mul- 
tiply by  3^4  and  add  the  product  to  twice  the  dis- 
tance between  the  center  of  the  shafts.     Where  space 


r^ 

fe^ 

& 

Fig.  104.— The  Crossed  Belt.  Each  Pulley  Has  an  Arc  of  Belt 
Contact  More  Than  180  Degrees.  In  General,  Loss  Because 
of  Friction  in  Twisted  Belt  Overcomes  Advantage  of  Greater 
Belt  Contact.  Arrangement  Shown  Useful  for  Reverse 
Drive. 

permits,  a  distance  of  20  to  25  feet  between   pulley 
centers  is  a  good  working  distance. 

432.  Speed  of  Belts. — Increasing  the  speed  of  a 
belt  increases  its  power  up  to  certain  limits,  but  this 
cannot  be  carried  beyond  6,000  feet  per  minute,  as  the 
power  then  begins  to  fall.  In  practice  it  is  a  safe  rule 
in  anything  to  avoid  extremes,  4,000  to  4,500  feet  per 
minute  being  a  more  economical  and  a  far  safer  speed, 
while  as  little  as  600  can  be  used.  In  lagging  or  cov- 
ering pulleys  it  must  always  be  borne  in   mind  that 


336         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

adding  to  the  size  of  the  pulley  increases  the  speed  of 
the  belt. 

433.  Belt  Slipping. — All  belts  slip  more  or  less, 
and  within  certain  limits  it  is  an  advantage,  as  the 
sudden  obstruction  of  a  load,  such  as  the  clogging  of 
a  thresher  cylinder  or  similar  accident,  may  merely 
cause  the  belt  to  slip  when  a  positive  drive  like  cog 
gears  would  cause  a  serious  breakage.  When  a  belt 
because  of  slippage  fails  to  deliver  97  or  98  per  cent. 


Fig.  105, — Driving  With  Long,  Heavy  Belt,  Showing  Sag. 

of  the  power  it  should  transmit,  the  loss  is  too  great. 
Most  slips  originate  where  the  laced  joint  strikes  the 
smaller  pulley,  which  is  where  the  contact  is  the  least 
and  is  therefore  most  easily  broken.  It  is  important 
that  the  joint  be  made  as  even  as  possible  to  decrease 
the  jerk  at  this  point.  Pulleys  of  about  equal  size  hold 
the  belt  much  better  than  where  the  difference  of  di- 
ameter is  great,  as  the  belt  is  in  contact  more  nearly 
its  full  180  degrees  (see  cuts).  For  this  reason  a  belt 
that  is  long  and  heavy  enough  to  permit  considerable 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  337 

sag  without  loss  of  necessary  tension  hugs  the  pulley 
better  than  a  tight  belt.  On  account  of  the  greater 
tension,  however,  the  tight  belt  will  deliver  the  most 
power,  but  an  over-tight  belt  consumes  more  power 
by  increased  friction  on  the  journals  and  is  less  ef- 
fective than  one  of  moderate  tension.  Slipping  creates 
hot  belts  and  a  tight  belt  causes  hot  boxes.  By  mak- 
ing the  lower  side  of  a  horizontal  belt  do  the  power 
transmitting  and  letting  the  upper  do  the  sagging  the 
amount  of  contact  is  increased  and  the  tendency  to 
slip  diminished.  For  small  high  speed  wheels,  light, 
soft  belting  hugs  the  pulley  better  than  heavy  or 
double  belts. 

Nearly  three  times  as  much  power  can  sometimes 
be  transmitted  from  a  leather  faced  as  from  a  smooth 
iron  faced  pulley.  Manila  paper  answers  a  similar 
purpose,  and  if  smoothly  put  on  and  not  overloaded 
will  last  for  years.  Soak  good  glue  in  its  w^eight  of 
water  till  water  is  absorbed,  then  melt.  Roughen  pul- 
ley face  with  acid  or  coarse  file  and  spread  on  glue, 
then  paper,  rubbing  on  with  a  brush  to  expel  all  air. 
Use  several  layers  of  glue  and  paper ;  or  old  split  belt- 
ing or  split  leather  may  be  used  if  desired. 

When  a  belt  once  slips  badly  it  is  more  difficult  to 
hold,  and  it  is  more  important  to  guard  against  the 
first  slip  than  to  correct  it  afterwards.  Wet  belts 
are  sure  to  slip  on  iron  and  are  injurious  to  wood  pul- 
leys, hence  should  be  dried  before  used.  Belt  dress- 
ing that  contains  mineral  oil  or  rosin  soon  coats  belt 
wath  a  glaze  that  is  fatal  to  holding  unless  kept  con- 
stantly sticky;  then  it  is  disagreeable  to  handle  and 
catches  all  the  floating  dust  and  dirt.  A  belt  once 
glazed  by  dope  is  half  spoiled,  as  the  natural  oils  of 
the  leather  are  drawn  out  and  the  fiber  deadened.  If 
a  belt  becomes  hardened  castor  oil   may  be   used  to 


338         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

restore  it  partially.  One  of  the  worst  dangers  of  belt 
dressings  is  the  fact  that  any  of  them  work  w^ell  at 
the  start. 

434.  Belt  Hints. — Cold  weather  is  hard  on  belts. 
When  first  starting,  run  without  load  until  they  are 
warmed  up. 

Tight  belts  are  expensive  in  leather,  power  and  bear- 
ings. A  belt  so  tight  as  to  cause  the  loss  of  power  by 
friction  at  the  journals  to  exceed  20%  of  the  load  may 
be  classed  as  a  tight  belt. 

Six-inch  belts  or  heavier  should  have  bearings  on 
each  side  of  pulleys. 

Old  belts  that  are  saturated  with  grease  are  hard 
to  hold.  They  may  be  partially  restored  by  sprink- 
ling Fuller's  earth  or  prepared  chalk  over  them  to  ab- 
sorb the  grease  and  then  scraping  with  a  wooden  strip 
slightly  sharpened. 

Narrow  double  belts  are  more  economical,  efficiency 
considered,  than  single  wide  ones. 

A  rubber  belt  from  which  part  of  the  rubber  sur- 
face has  been  worn  will  shrink  badly  if  wet. 

Cheap  grade  leather  belts  are  fair  for  light  work 
and  slow  speeds,  but  are  not  suitable  for  heavy  or 
high  speed  machines. 

Belts  running  curled  over  the  edges  of  pulleys  may 
be  due  to  faulty  alignment  in  shafts,  a  slight  taper  in 
the  pulley,  a  hanger  support  that  yields  under  a  pull, 
or  to  the  uneven  stretching  of  the  belt. 

Belts  should  be  run  with  a  slight  wavy  motion  on 
slack  side,  showing  slight  tension.  Swaying  is  caused 
by  pulleys  being  out  of  line  or  out  of  balance,  or  there 
may  be  an  unevenness  in  the  thickness  or  the  pull  of 
the  leather.  At  rest  the  edges  of  the  belt  should  hug 
the  pulley. 

To  avoid  as  much  friction  as  possible,  belts  should 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


339 


be  run  at  rather  high  speed  and  with  less  tension. 
Heavy  pulls  should  come  near  hangers  and  ought, 
if  taken  from  a  line  shaft,  to  be  delivered  to  the  side 
opposite  that  from  which  the  power  is  taken  in  order 
to  have  the  pull  of  the  machine  in  some  measure 
counteract  that  of  the  engine. 

Never  overload  a  belt  that  is  not  in  sight,  as  there 
is  constant  danger  from  fire. 

A  good  leather  belt,  well  cared  for,  ought  to  last 
for  ID  or  12  years,  though'  there  are  cases  on  record 


Fig.    io6. — A   Useful   Kink.      Driving  Belt   Loose,   But   Kept  in 
Contact  With   Pulleys   With  Lighter,   Narrow   Binding   Belt. 


where  they  have  been  kept  in  continuous  service  for 
i8  or  even  20  years.  A  belt  working  under  moderate 
load  and  over  well  set  pulleys  will  last  much  longer 
than   otherwise. 

A  crossed  or  twisted  belt  is  sometimes  necessary  for 
reversing  the  motion.  If  the  pulleys  over  which  it 
works  are  nearly  alike  it  should  increase  the  arc  of 
contact  though  it  adds  to  the  friction. 

435.  A  Useful  Belt  Kink. — The  drawing  power  of 
a  large  belt  may  be  materially  increased  and  the  strain 
on  both  the  belt  and  the  journals  greatly  diminished 
by  running  decidedly  loose  and  at  the  same  time  hold- 
ing the  belt  snugly  to  the  pulley  surfaces  by  running 
a  small  binder  belt  outside  of  it  (Fig.  106).     The  lat- 


340         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

ter  should  be  drawn  tight.  This  permits  doing  away 
with  most  of  the  tension  without  diminishing  the  grip 
of  the  main  belt  on  the  wheel  face. 

436.  Belt  Lacing. — A  good  belt  should  have  but 
one  joint,  and  even  that,  where  practicable,  had  bet- 
ter be  dispensed  wath.  Endless  belts  are'  only  avail- 
able, however,  where  one  of  the  pulleys  over  which 
they  are  to  be  used  may  be  moved  up  or  back  at  will, 
as  a  belt  will  stretch  and,  wdien  made  to  fit  between 
two  wheels  at  the  beginning,  will  soon  become  too 
long  for  the  place,  and  have  to  be  taken  up. 

To  lace  a  belt,  first  cut  the  ends  off  square  across 
so  that  the  tension  will  be  even.     Cut  the  holes  with 


:t=i 


107  108 

Fig.    107. — The   Finished  Joint,    Pulley    Side. 
Fig.  108. — The  Finished  Laced  Joint,  Top  of  Belt. 

a  belt  punch,  and  a  sloping,  shearing  cut  gives  smooth- 
est edges.  One  row  of  holes  is  enough  for  light  work 
and  two  is  plenty  for  the  heaviest  work  around  the 
farm,  though  three  are  sometimes  used  in  running 
heavy  machinery.  The  lacing  should  be  done  so  that 
an  equal  strain  is  placed  on  all  the  holes  and  none 
of  the  laces  either  twisted  or  crossed  on  the  pulley 
side  of  the  belt.  The  laces  will  not  wear  out  nearly 
so  fast  and  will  not  jerk  the  machinery  so  much.  An 
oval  punch  is  best  wnth  the  large  diameter  turned 
lengthwise  of  the  belt.  Many  belts  are  ruined  by  large 
holes  or  holes  too  close  together.  The  latter  makes 
a  stronger  lace  but  weakens  the  belt. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  341 

If  a  six-inch  belt  or  less  is  being  punched,  mark  a 
line  square  across  each  end  one  inch  back,  and  along 
these  lines  lay  off  the  places  for  the  holes  exactly  op- 
posite each  other  and  with  equal  spacing  between.  An 
odd  number  of  holes  in  each  row  works  out  best.  For 
a  larger  belt  and  for  heavier  loads  use  a  second  row 
of  holes  the  same  distance  back  of  the  first.  The  dis- 
tance apart  and  from  the  ends  may  be  increased  a 
little  for  w^de  belts  and  diminished  for  narrow.  Can- 
vas belts  should  be  punched  with  a  pointed  instrument 
that  will  shove  the  fibers  aside  instead  of  cutting  them 
off.  For  leather  or  rubber,  a  smooth  cut  is  best  and 
the  hole  should  be  large  enough  to  pass  the  lace 
through  twice  without  straining  the  fiber  of  the 
leather. 

437.  Lace  Leathers. — Rawhide  is  used  for  lacing, 
and  it  may  be  purchased  already  cut  or  by  the  side, 
and  then  cut  up  by  hand.  The  latter  method  is  much 
the  cheapest,  but  the  strips  should  be  cut  straight, 
smooth  and  even  in  width.  A  lace  that  varies  in  width 
is  an  abomination.  When  buying  those  ready  cut,  se- 
lect those  of  medium  and  uniform  thickness  in  pref- 
erence to  extra  heavy  or  light.  The  first  are  not  flex- 
ible enough ;  the  second  lack  strength.  From  five-six- 
teenths to  a  half-inch  is  the  usual  width,  the  former 
being  preferable  excepting  for  the  heaviest  belts.  If 
the  smooth  or  hair  side  of  the  lace  is  placed  out  if 
will  wear  longer.  By  wetting  the  ends  and  then  burn- 
ing them  until  slightly  crisped  they  may  be  put 
through  the  hole  more  easily. 

438.  Methods  of  Lacing, — To  double  lace  a  single 
row  of  holes,  begin  at  the  center  of  the  belt  and,  with 
the  pulley  side  below,  pass  each  end  up  through  the 
center  hole  in  each  end  of  the  belt,  then  down,  the 
one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left,  through  the 


342 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


next  hole  in  the  opposite  end  of  the  belt.  Continue 
this  until  the  edge  is  reached,  then  turn  and  lace  back 
through  the  same  holes.  When  the  edges  of  the  belt 
are  again  reached  each  hole  will  have  two  laces 
through  it,  all  of  the  crossing  will  have  been  done 
on  the  upper  side,  and  the  ends  of  the  lace  will  also 
both  be  at  the  top.  Instead  of  tying  these,  poke  the 
ends  through  under  one  of  the  other  laces  and  then 
carry  them  down  through  smaller  holes  that  they 
will  fill  snugly,  and  cut  them  off  with  the  ends  a  very 
little  beyond  the  under  surface.  The  pressure  of  the 
pulley  will  soon  settle  them  into  place.  The  two  sides 
of  this  lace  when  finished  will,  if  rightly  done,  look 
like  those  in  Figs.  107  and  108.     Short  pieces  of  lac- 


FiG.    109. — Several    Methods   of   Belt   Lacing. 

ing  drawn  in  over  the  main  piece  where  it  wears 
upon  the  pulley  will  increase  the  life  of  the  lace  but 
it  also  adds  to  the  jar  of  the  belt  in  passing,  and  de- 
creases the  surface  of  contact  at  the  instant  when  it 
is  most  needed.  Other  methods  of  lacing  are  given  in 
the  illustration  (Fig.  109),  from  which  they  may  be 
easily  worked  out.  Hinge  lacing  takes  less  lace  than 
some  of  the  others,  and  has  the  advantage  of  drawing 
upon  the  body  of  the  belt  between  the  holes  instead 
of  directly  on  the  hole.  For  this  reason  it  is  specially 
good  for  old  rotten  belts ;  also  for  rubber  and  web 
belting.  Bootleg  lacing  does  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  pulley  at  all,  and  for  cotton  or  badly  frayed  rub- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  343 

ber  belting  is  cheapest  and  makes  the  smoothest  run- 
ning belt.  It  looks  bungling  and  unworkmanlike, 
however,  and  is  somewhat  dangerous  to  operators,  and 
is  little  used. 

Never  allow  several  inches  of  free  lace  ends  to  whip 
about  the  machinery.  It  is  constantly  catching  and 
straining  both  lacing  and  belt,  and  is  dangerous  to  op- 
erators.    Cut  the  ends  off  or  tuck  them  under. 

439.  Wire  Lacing  and  Belt  Hooks. — Wire  lacings 
when  properly  made  are  quite  durable  and  give  little 
jolt  at  the  joint,  but  their  efficiency  depends  a  good 
deal  on  the  lacer.     The  holes  may  be  much  smaller; 


READY  TO  APPLY  FtNISHED  JOINT 


Fig.    no.— Some   Approved    Metallic   Belt  Hooks. 

just  large  enough  for  the  wire  to  pass  through  twice. 
They  are  fastened  by  flattening  with  a  hammer.  They 
are  specially  intended  for  leather  belts  and  are  also 
used  for  canvas.  Wire  lacing  should  never  be  crossed 
on  the  pulley  side  of  the  belt.  Belt  hooks  and  other 
metallic  fasteners  are  convenient  to  apply  but  some  of 
them  lack  flexibility  and  should  specially  be  avoided 
with  small  pulleys.  Some  of  them  work  well  when  in 
good  condition.  A  broken  and  projecting  belt  hook- 
may  become  a  very  dangerous  thing. 

440.  Cementing  Belts. — But  for  the  one  difficulty 
of  stretching,  the  cemented  or  spliced  belt  would  be 
ideal  for  leather,  but  unless  the  distance  between  jour- 


344         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

nals  or  the  size  of  the. pulleys  can  be  varied,  such  a 
joint  should  not  be  made  until  the  stretch  has  been 
taken  out  of  the  belt  by  a  period  of  use.  A  joint  of 
this  sort,  if  well  made,  is  permanent  and  is  supposed 
to  wear  as  long  as  any  other  part  of  the  belt,  and  it 
runs  over  the  pulley  without  jerk  or  vibration. 

For  a  six-inch  belt  or  smaller,  cut  the  belt  six 
inches  longer  than  for  lacing;  mark  off  six  inches 
from  end  and  taper  with  plane  or  spoke  shave.  Do 
the  same  with  the  other  end  but  on  the  opposite  side. 
Scrape  the  laps  with  steel  or  glass  to  make  them  even. 
Have  a  smooth  surface  under  belt  while  splicing. 
After  cutting,  place  belt  on  pulleys  and  draw  tight, 
with  the  joint  at  some  point  between  the  pulleys.  Hold 
a  board  under  joint  and  nail  belt  to  it  with  small 
nails  to  insure  again  slipping.  Remove  belt  and  board 
to  a  convenient  place  and  apply  belt  glue  (not  com- 
mon glue)  hot.  Apply  this  to  both  ends  of  the  lap, 
then  place  together  and  hammer  lightly  for  a  few  min- 
utes to  expel  all  air.  Glue  a  strip  of  paper  over  the 
tips  of  the  leather  to  keep  them  in  place  until  the  work 
is  thoroughly  set;  then  clamp  tightly  together  for  a 
few  hours.    The  laps  must  be  kept  clean  while  gluing. 

441.  Splicing  a  Gandy  or  a  Canvas  Belt. — For  a 
six-inch  belt  make  the  splice  about  four  times  the 
width  of  the  belt  and  lay  ofif  the  splice  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  there  are  layers  in  the  belt.  Cut  one 
ply  off  the  entire  length,  the  second  at  the  next  point 
of  division,  and  so  on ;  then  do  the  same  with  the 
other  end  but  work  from  the  other  side  of  the 
belt,  so  that  the  longest  ply  in  the  one  end  will  come 
opposite  the  place  where  the  full  lap  was  cut  off  in 
the  other. 

Fit  the  ends  together  and  sew  lengthwise  of  the  belt 
with  waxed  thread,  the  seams  about  one  inch  apart. 


Tpie  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         345 

An  occasional  coat  of  linseed  oil  and  red  lead  will 
prolong  the  life  of  a  Gandy  belt  materially. 

442.  Rope  Transmission. — Where  the  power  has  to 
be  transmitted  considerable  distance  and  a  variety  of 
directions,  cotton,  manila  and  hemp  ropes  over 
grooved  wheels  or  sheaves  are  becoming  popular  as 
they  wear  longer,  are  more  flexible,  less  costly,  and 
transmit  more  power  than  belts.  Their  motion  is  also 
very  smooth  and  noiseless.  The  speed  should  be 
around  4,000  .feet  per  minute ;  never  over  5,000,  and 
the  smallest  pulley  should  have  a  diameter  at  least 
30  times  the  rope.  Rope  drive  may  be  used  even  if 
the  shafts  are  not  quite  parallel  and,  on  account  of 
greater  contact  in  the  wedge-shaped  grooves,  they 
may  be  run  more  loosely  and  with  less  slip.  There 
should  be  a  distance  of  at  least  20  feet  between  pul- 
ley centers.  Worn  rope,  once  it  begins  to  roughen, 
is  very  troublesome  and  should  be  replaced.  An  occa- 
sional dressing  of  beeswax  and  graphite  will  add  much 
to  the  life  of  a  rope  drive. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
OTHER   FORMS    OF   TRANSMISSION. 

443.  Gear  Wheels. — In  spite  of  its  defects  gear- 
wheel transmission  will  probably  be  in  use  so  long  as 
it  is  necessary  to  transmit  an  absolute  motion,  no 
matter  how  much  the  load  varies.  With  it  there  is 
no  stretching  or  slipping  of  belts.  Whatever  the  over- 
load the  motion  will  be  transmitted  so  long  as  the 
driving  wheels  revolve  unless  the  gear  is  stripped.  It 
is  also  a  convenient  means  of  cutting  out  or  revers- 
ing or  changing  speed,  though  lately  the  friction 
clutch  has  in  part  usurped  this  field.  In  using  this 
form  of  transmission,  however,  one  must  remember 
that  as  the  power  is  faithfully  transmitted,  so  is  any 
unsteadiness  in  it  likewise,  together  with  more  or  less 
vibration  originating  in  the  gear  itself.  Overloading 
is  more  unsafe,  too,  than  with  belts,  because  there  is 
no  slippage  to  guard  against  a  serious  strain.  With 
the  belt,  something  gives ;  with  the  bearing,  it  breaks. 

444.  Material. — Gear  wheels  are  made  of  brass 
(for  small  work),  iron,  steel,  bronze  and  raw  hide. 
They  vary  in  size  from  the  finest  pinion  of  a  watch 
to  mill  machinery  weighing  many  tons.  On  account 
of  their  absolute  transmission  under  variable  load, 
they  are  specially  well  liked  for  traction  engines. 

445.  Finish. — Iron  gear  wheels  are  made  to  certain 
specifications,  recognized  as  standard  by  manufac- 
turers.     To    depart   from   this   is    not   only   to   insure 

346 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


347 


greater  cost  on  the  first  special  order  but  on  all  sub- 
sequent repairs  and  possibly  some  difficulty  in  coup- 
ling up  with  other  machinery.     Iron  wheels  are  either 


Fig.   III. — Internal  Spur  Gear. 

cut  or  cast,  the  latter  being  cheaper,  and  the  cut  gear 
much  the  smoothest  and  most  desirable  for  fast  run- 
ningf  wheels,  or  where  an  even  motion  is  desired.     For 


the  rougher  work,  and  with  slow  moving  machinery, 
the  cast  wheels  will  often  answer.  Many  farm  ma- 
chines use  the  cast  gear,  though  some  of  the  finer  sort, 
like  the  cream  separator,  require  the  cut. 


348         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

446.  Spur  Gearing. — Spur  gears,  the  most  common 
of  all  in  use,  are  those  which  turn  on  parallel  axes, 
without  regard  to  the  form  of  teeth.     They  may  be 


Fig.  113. — Bevel  Gearing. 

either  within  the  rim  of  the  driven  wheel,  as  in  the 
main  drive  wheels  of  some  mowers  and  of  most 
tractors,  or  around  the  outer  side  of  the  rim,  as  in 


Fig.  114. — Intermittent  Gears. 

most  of  the  intermediate  transmissions.     Fig.   iii   il- 
lustrates the  first  type,  and   112  the  second. 

447.  Bevel  and  Miter  Gears. — If  the  axes  of  a  pair 
of  gear  wheels  meet  at  an  angle  they  are  called  bevel 
gears ;  if  they  meet  at  a  right  angle   and  the  gears 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


349 


are  equal  they  are  termed  miter  gears.  All  miter  gears 
are  bevel,  but  not  all  bevel  are  miter  gears.  They  are 
used  when  the  direction  of  the  power  transmission 
must  be  changed   (Fig.   113). 

448.  Intermittent  Gears.— Intermittent  gears  are 
occasionally  introduced  into  the  timing  system  of  a 
gasoline  engine,  but  are  not  in  common  use  in  farm 
machinery.  Their  purpose  is  to  transmit  power  while 
turning  a  certain  distance  but  not  continuously.  Most 
engine  timing  is  done  by  means  of  cams  (Fig.  114). 

449.  Cams.— Cams  are  a  species  of  gear  peculiar 
in  that  they  are  fashioned  on  the  principle  of  a  wheel 


Fig.   115.— Action  of  Cam  Outlined. 

turning  on  an  axis  not  at  its  center,  in  order  that 
they  may  press  more  firmly  against  a  near-by  lever 
or  spring  at  one  time  than  another.  Often  their  shape 
is  such  a  departure  from  that  of  the  true  wheel  that 
they  bear  little  resemblance  to  it  (Fig.  115). 

450.  Worm  Gear.— Worm  gearing  is  in  very  com- 
mon use  in  the  guiding  systems  of  tractors ;  the  power 
applied  by  the  operator  to  the  hand  wheel  being  trans- 
mitted to  the  front  axle  through  a  worm  gear.^  They 
represent  a  very  great  reduction  of  speed  applied  and 
distance  covered  by  the  actuating  energy  but  add 
greatly  to  the  power,  combining  as  they  do  the  lever- 


350         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

age  principle  of  the  wheel  and  the  inclined  plane  (Fig. 
1x6). 

451.  Other  Gear  Wheels. — Some  of  the  other  com- 
moner forms  of  gearing  are  the  sprocket  wheel, 
ratchet  wheel,  escape  wheel,  crown  gear  wheel,  spiral 
gear,  rack  and  pinion  and  elliptic  gear.  Most  of  them 
are  found  in  farm  machinery  so  seldom  that  their 
special  description  is  unnecessary.  Cog  wheels,  the 
name  under  which  all  gear  wheels  erroneously  pass 
with  many  people,  are  wheels  into  which  the  gear 
teeth  are  set  in  separate  pieces.    They  are  seldom  seen 


Fig.    116. — Worm   Gearing  Used   In   Tractor   Steering  Gears. 
Fig.    117. — Spiral   Gear   Used   for   Cam   Shaft   Operation. 

on  the  farm  and  are  only  referred  to  because  so  often 
confused  with  gear  wheels. 

452.  Rawhide  Gearing. — One  of  the  objections  to 
iron  gear  wheels  has  always  been  the  noise  they  make. 
To  obviate  this,  other  substances  as  fiber,  leather, 
etc.,  have  been  tried.  Leather  has  been  found  spe- 
cially successful  after  being  subjected  to  special  treat- 
ment but  is  rather  expensive  for  large  wheels.  It  has 
been  found  that  an  iron  wheel  meshing  with  one  of 
leather  does  away  with  most  of  the  noise,  so  leather  is 
often  used  for  the  small  wheel  or  pinion  to  mesh  with 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         351 

one  of  iron  much  larger.  For  a  specially  silent  gear 
the  face  of  the  rawhide  gear  is  sometimes  made 
slightly  wider  than  its  metal  mate  and,  to  guard 
against  curling  over,  brass  flanges  are  bolted  securely 
to  each  side  of  the  wheel,  including  the  teeth  This 
adds  somewhat  to  the  cost  and  a  great  deal  to  the  life 

of  the  gear. 

Even  when  badly  worn,  a  leather  gear  wheel  re- 
tains its  elastic  nature  and  continues  to  transmit 
power  without  vibration  or  jar  and  so  materially  in- 
creases the  life  of  its  metal  mate.  It  is  not  desirable 
in  places  where  it  is  likely  to  become  wet  and  not 
,n  connection  with  irregular  motion  or  with  cast  gear- 
in.r  the  irregular  shrinkage  of  the  latter,  in  cooling 
making  too  much  unequal  strain  because  of  the  rough 

surface. 

453  Care  of  Leather  Pinions.— Do  not  use  min- 
eral oil  on  rawhide  pinions  as  it  tends  to  soften  them 
and  they  usually  get  all  the  oil  they  need  from  their 
bearings.  Instead,  coat  the  surface  with  a  dressing 
of  graphite  and  hard  grease. 

Never  allow  the  bearings  to  become  hot.  Leather  is 
an  animal  substance  and  may  be  consumed. 

Store  them,  when  not  in  use,  in  a  cool,  dry  place 
and  cover  the  rawhide  slightly  with  the  hard  grease 
and  graphite  mixture. 

See  whether  the  teeth  are  meshing  properly.  1^  all- 
ure to  do  this  may  ruin  the  pinion  in  a  very  short 

454  Rules  Governing  Gear  Repairs.— The  outside 
diameter  of  a  gear  wheel  is  taken  from  the  circle  made 
by  a  line  drawn  around  the  outside  tips  of  the  teeth. 

The  pitch  diameter  is  taken  on  a  circle  through  the 
point  where  the  teeth  roll  into  working  contact  with 
those  of  another  wheel. 


352         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  FaRxM 

Diameter,  applied  to  gearing,  always  means  pitch 
diameter  unless  otherwise  specified. 

The  diametrical  pitch  is  the  number  of  teeth  to  each 
inch  of  pitch  diameter.  The  pitch  of  any  standard 
wheel  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  number  of  its 
teeth  by  the  number  of  inches  in  its  pitch  diameter 


SPOKED  GEAR 


Fig.   ii8.-IIlustrating  Terms  Used  In  Ordering  Spur  Gear 
Wheels. 

The  pitch  of  any  standard  wheel  may  be  obtained 
from  the  outside  diameter  (which  is  more  convenient 
to  measure)  by  adding  2  to  the  actual  number  of 
teeth  and  dividing  by  the  outside  diameter.  From  this 
the  pitch  diameter  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  by  the  pitch. 

Circular  pitch  is  the  distance  from  center  to  center 
between  the  teeth  measured  along  the  line  of  the  pitch 
circle.  It  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  3.1416  by  the 
diametrical  pitch. 

The  above  rules  will  enable  any  one  to  calculate  for 
themselves  by  counting  the  teeth  and  taking  the  out- 
side measure  of  the  wheel  those  commoner  specifica- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  353 

tions  which  are  necessary  to  know  in  ordering  gear 
wheels  that  will  fit  other  gearing. 

The  length  of  a  gear  wheel  hub  is  its  projection 
beyond  the  rim  and  not  from  the  spoke.  It  is  much 
better  to  state  the  length  of  the  hole  instead  of  the 
hub. 

To  find  the  size  of  a  gear  wheel  needed  upon  a  fixed 
shaft  to  mesh  with  a  certain  gear  wheel  on  a  second 
fixed  shaft,  measure  the  distance  from  center  to  center, 
between  the  two  shafts  in  inches,  double  the  distance 
and  multiply  by  the  diametrical  pitch  (as  obtained 
by  means  of  rule  already  given  from  wheel  on  shaft), 
and  from  the  quotient  subtract  the  number  of  teeth 
on  the  wheel  given ;  the  result  will  be  the  number  of 
teeth  in  the  wheel  to  be  obtained.  With  this  and  the 
diametrical  pitch,  which  is  the  same  as  for  the  other 
wheel,  all  the  dimensions  of  the  new  wheel  may  be 
worked  out. 

Whenever  the  term  "pitch"  is  applied  to  gearing  it 
is  understood  to  mean  diametrical  pitch;  that  is,  the 
number  of  teeth  to  each  inch  of  pitch  diameter. 

The  above  rules  are  for  spur  gear  calculations. 
Those  for  bevel  gear  are  considerably  more  compli- 
cated and  of  less  general  use. 

455.  Power  of  Gear  Wheels. — The  horse-power 
that  a  certain  gear  wheel  will  transmit  depends  upon 
four  things;  the  face,  the  pitch,  the  velocity  of  pitch 
circle  in  feet  per  second,  and  the  kind  of  wheel, 
whether  spur,  or  bevel.  To  find  the  velocity  multiply 
the  pitch  diameter  in  inches  by  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions per  minute  and  divide  the  product  by  230.  At 
a  velocity  of  6  feet  per  second  a  spur  wheel  with  i- 
inch  face  and  i-inch  pitch  will  safely  transmit  2.782 
horse-power  and  each  trebling  of  velocity  for  the  same 
wheel  will  a  very  little  more  than  double  the  power. 


354         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

If  the  pitch  and  face  are  more  or  less  than  one  inch, 
multiply  the  power  given  at  the  required  velocity 
by  the  number  of  inches  or  the  fractional  part  of  an 
inch,  and  that  result  by  the  number  of  inches  of  face. 
This  gives  the  horse-power  transmitted.  In  practice 
under  average  conditions  but  half  or  two-thirds  of  this 
result  should  be  expected. 

The  velocity  of  gearing  should  be  kept  below  2,200 
feet  per  minute  for  iron  gear  and  3,000  for  wood  and 
iron. 

456.  An  Ideal  Gear  Wheel  Order. — If  the  follow- 
ing specifications  are  given  there  should  be  no  excuse 
for  any  supply  house  failing  to  send  the  wheel  wanted. 

I,  material — 2,  outside  diameter — 3,  pitch  diameter — 
4,  face — 5,  bore — 6,  number  of  teeth — 7,  pitch  (dia- 
metrical or  circular) — 8,  diameter  of  hub — 9,  distance 
through  hub — 10,  projection — 11,  distance  from  center 
to  center  of  shafts. 

When  ordering  spur  gears  to  transmit  a  certain 
horse-power  give  the  number  of  revolutions  per  min- 
ute, size  of  shafts  or  bore,  and  largest  and  smallest 
allowable  diameters. 

Bevel  gearing  will  transmit  approximately  ^  the 
horse-power  safely  conveyed  by  spur  gear. 

The  above  calculations  are  for  involute  teeth,  which 
are  now  more  popular  and  in  far  more  common  use 
than  the  epicycloidal  pattern,  one  advantage  being 
that  they   do  not   require   such   accurate   adjustment. 

457.  General  Care. — Transmission  gearing  requires 
occasional  attention  quite  as  much  at  its  rim  as  at 
the  axle,  and  this  is  particularly  true  in  relation  to  the 
tractor  gearing,  especially  the  differential.  Grease, 
oil,  graphite  and  reasonable  cleanliness,  at  least  free- 
dom from  the  grit  of  road  dust  and  ground-up  peb- 
bles, will  cure  most  of  the  ills  it  is  heir  to,  old  age 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         355 

excepted.  The  proper  use  of  the  clutch  might  also 
be  urged  here.  More  gearing  has  unquestionably- 
been  stripped  by  sudden  than  by  excessive  strains. 

Noisy  gears  may  sometimes  be  silenced  by  cleaning 
thoroughly  with  kerosene  or  gasoline  and  then  pack- 
ing with  medium  grease  to  which  flake  graphite  has 
been  added. 

Worn  gears  should  be  replaced  promptly  as  they  are 
a  constant  source  of  annoyance  and  even  danger.  The 
strain  of  any  sudden  emergency  hunts  out  the  worn 
tooth  with  unerring  accuracy  and  a  broken  gear  or 
pinion  is  likely  to  set  some  of  the  others  to  stripping. 
Worn  gearing  does  not  mesh  properly  and  not  only 
causes  considerable  loss  of  motion  or  power  through 
slippage,  but  wears  more  rapidly,  once  the  proper  re- 
lation between  the  wdieels  is  disturbed. 

A  temporary  remedy  for  worn  and  noisy  gearing  is 
a  handful  of  sawdust.  This,  of  course,  is  a  make- 
shift only.  Thick  grease  and  French  chalk  are  also  of 
considerable  use.  Worn  gear  teeth  are  noisy  because 
they  strike  against  each  other  instead  of  rolling. 


CHAPTER    XXL 
THE    FEED-ROOM. 

458.  When  Feed-grinding  Does  Not  Pay. — There 
is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the 
grinding  of  feed  is  profitable  under  the  usual  condi- 
tions.    That  it  is  beneficial  no  one  doubts.     Wliether 


Fig.    119. — Feed   Mill   With   Direct    Shaft   Drive   From   New 
Holland  Engine. 

the  benefit  is  enough  to  justify  the  double  handling  of 
large  quantities  of  grain,  of  hauling  it,  perhaps  over 
bad  roads,  several  miles  to  the  nearest  mill  and  then 
back  again,  and  of  the  expense  in  cash  or  toll  for 
grinding  is  an  open  question.  Often  it  is  cheaper  to 
let  a  part  of  the  grain  be  wasted  by  being  fed  un- 
ground  than  it  is  to  put  so  much  extra  work  and  ex- 
pense into  the  grinding. 

356 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  357 

459.  Convenient  Grinding. — With  a  gasoline  engine 
properly  installed  this  waste  of  the  farm  crops  at  the 
feed  bin  is  unnecessary,  nor  is  any  great  an^onnt  of 
extra  work  called  for.  A  link-chain  conveyor  or  ele- 
vator, run  by  the  engine,  should  carry  the  grain  in  a 
constant  stream  from  a  portable  bin  or  trough  set  be- 
side the  thresher  to  elevated  bins  in  the  feed  room 
above  the  stables.  Below  these  bins,  and  connected 
to  its  hopper  by  closed  v/ooden  spouts,  should  stand 
the  feed  grinder,  belted  to  a  shaft  or  directly  con- 
nected with  the  engine.  By  opening  slides  in  one  or 
more  of  these  spouts  a  stream  of  any  grain  stored  in 
the  bins  above  or  a  mixture  of  any  two  or  more  is  con- 
ve3"ed  directly  into  the  hopper  without  a  pound  of 
grain  having  to  be  lifted  with  human  hands.  The  at- 
tendant may  then  start  the  engine  and,  once  having 
thrown  the  mill  into  operation,  need  give  it  no  further 
attention  until  the  grinding  is  completed. 

460.  Convenient  Feeding. — The  discharge  from  the 
mill  may  be  conveyed  to  a  bagger  or  directly  into 
a  portable  bin  supplied  with  wheels  and  shafts,  and 
which  is  easily  moved  along  the  row  of  feed  chutes 
leading  into  the  feeding  boxes  in  the  mangers  below. 
From  the  time  the  grain  leaves  the  threshing  machine 
it  need  not  be  touched  until  it  is  stored,  ground,  mixed 
in  any  desired  proportions  and  delivered  to  the  hands 
of  the  feeder  directly  over  the  animals  in  the  stable 
below.  All  lifting  is  avoided  and  all  carrying.  The 
engine  and  gravity  do  it  all ;  but  only  the  work  of  the 
engine  renders  it  convenient  to  elevate  the  grain 
where  gravity  can  be  used. 

461.  Feed  Always  Fresh. — Ground  meal,  if  stored 
in  quantities,  is  far  more  likely  to  taint,  heat  or  be- 
come infested  with  insect  enemies  than  the  whole 
grain.     No  matter  how  well  seasoned  the  corn,  there 


358  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

is  always  so  much  risk  in  the  continuous  storing  of 
corn  meal  in  quantities  that  constant  watchfulness  is 
necessary;  often  frequent  handling.  Still,  if  the  grain 
has  to  be  hauled  some  distance  to  a  mill  or  if  it  is 
worked  up  on  the  farm  with  a  steam  powder  grinder, 
there  is  little  economy  in  grinding  it  in  small  quan- 
tities. 

With  the  gasoline  engine  feed  may  be  ground  fresh 
as  needed,  wdiile  the  water  is  being  pumped  or  the 
morning  chores  done.  Little  attention  is  required. 
All  mixtures,  too,  may  be  regulated  when  the  slides 
are  opened  so  that  the  nature  of  the  feed  is  changed, 
without  any  trouble,  to  suit  conditions ;  or  a  different 
mixture  may  be  provided  for  different  lots  of  cattle 
or  even  for  different  individuals.  It  is  no  longer  nec- 
essary to  have  storage  bins  for  the  mixtures  best 
adapted  to  the  dairy  cow,  the  horse,  the  growing  calf, 
nor  are  we  compelled  to  feed  the  same  mixture  to  all 
alike  without  consulting  the  purpose. 

462.  The  Balanced  Ration. — The  farm  feed  mill 
and  the  power  which  can  be  made  available  at  any 
time  without  fuss  lend  themselves  specially  to  the 
compounding  of  balanced  rations  best  suited  for  any 
specific  purpose  or  for  several  of  them  which  may  be 
served  all  at  once. 

463.  A  Good  Feeding  Plan. — Most  animals  are  in- 
clined to  bolt  their  grain  and  then  pick  over  their 
roughage  very  gingerly,  selecting  only  the  choicest 
portions  and  -  tossing  the  rest  upon  the  floor  to  be 
wasted.  Hay  thrown  to  them  in  bunches  and  separate 
from  the  grain  rather  invites  a  playful  attack  with 
the  horns  and  a  tendenc}^  to  cull  it  over  with  too  much 
discrimination,  while  the  grain,  fed  alone,  is  eaten  too 
fast. 

If  the   hay   or  fodder   is   first   run   through    a   feed 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  359 

cutter  or  shredder  there  is  ahiiost  no  waste.  It  may 
then  be  fed  in  tight  boxes  and,  by  being  mixed  with 
the  grain  and  fed  all  at  once,  it  is  all  eaten  and  at 
the  same  time  the  grain  is  not  swallowed  so  hurriedly, 
nor  does  it  reach  the  stomach  in  a  compact  mass.  The 
actual  quantity  being  fed  is  more  handily  determined, 
too,  either  by  the  scales  or  by  measure,  and  there  is 
far  less  likelihood  of  feeding  entirely  by  guess.  Tak- 
ing into  account  all  of  the  leaks  which  accompany 
the  old  method  of  feeding,  there  is  here  an  increased 
efficiency  of  from  25%  to  40%  in  the  actual  feeding 
value  of  the  same  hay  and  grain. 


Fig.  120. — Mill  for  Grinding  Two  Kinds  of  Grain. 

464.  A  Special  Appetizer. — The  addition  of  water 
in  reasonable  quantities  does  much  to  freshen  up  the 
usually  dry,  hard  feed  of  the  w^inter  months  and  a 
small  handful  of  salt  adds  not  a  little  to  the  relish. 
Three  minutes  with  the  spray  pump  over  the  mixing 
bin  prepares  the  cut  hay  specially  well  not  only  to  be 
relished  by  the  cattle,  but  also  moistens  it  enough  so 
that   the   ground   feed   scattered   over   it    is   eaten   at 


360 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


the  same  time,  and  does  not  sift  through  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  manger. 

465.  Grinding  Cob  Meal. — The  cob  meal  attach- 
ment should  not  be  forgotten  when  the  home  grind- 
ing mill  is  run.  It  is  true  that  there  is  not  a  great 
deal  of  nutrition  in  the  cob  itself  but  when  reduced 
to  a  coarse  meal  it  serves  well  as  a  mechanical  mix- 
ture and  helps  lighten  up  the  heavier  portion  so  that 


Ipiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimii 

Fig.  121. — Power  Driven  ^Nlill  for  Grinding  Grain,  Cob  and  Husk. 


it  is  better  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  gastric  juices. 
Cobs  are  rather  hard  to  grind  and  the  average  miller 
will  not  grind  them  except  for  an  extra  price.  Besides, 
they  are  bulky  and  that  much  more  of  a  load  to  haul 
over  the  roads,  when  taken  away.  Worked  up  on  the 
home  mill  they  are  worth  at  least  the  extra  power 
they  take,  and  well  repay  the  little  attention  they 
require,  even  though  they  feed  a  little  more  slowly 
into  the  hopper. 

466.     Grinding   Family   Grists. — By   adding  only   a 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  361 

few  dollars  to  the  first  expense  of  the  mill  one  can  be 
obtained  which  will  do  first  class  work  on  corn  meal, 
graham  flour,  and  whole  wheat  flour  for  family  use. 
The  grist  obtained  is  at  least  a  good  ways  ahead  of 
some  that  is  furnished  when  grain  is  taken  in  exchange 
by  the  village  miller  and  stored  meal  supplied.  The 
home  grist  is  always  fresh  and  every  man  who  takes 
enough  pride  and  care  in  his  farming  to  produce  first 
class  grain  is  certain  of  being  rewarded  by  meal  from 
his  own  instead  of  from  that  raised  by  some  careless 
neighbor. 

467.  Accessories  of  the  Feed  Room. — Good  feed 
alone  is  not  the  only  subject  of  importance  to  the  feed 
room  nor  is  it  the  only  one  wdierein  the  gasoline  engine 
plays  a  most  important  part.  Actual  experiments  have 
proven  that  where  water  is  supplied  to  dairy  cows 
at  stated  intervals  of  twice  daily  the  milk  yield  aver- 
aged 225  pounds  less  per  annum  than  where  they 
were  allowed  to  drink  at  will.  As  nearly  half  the  ani- 
mal weight  of  the  fat  ox  is  water  it  is  evident  that 
drink  should  play  an  important  part  in  the  fattening 
of  beef  cattle  as  well  as  in  their  growth  and  develop- 
ment. It  is  safe  to  say,  though,  that  for  every  stock 
barn  equipped  with  a  continuous  watering  device  there 
are  hundreds  wherein  cattle  are  watered  less  than 
twice  daily ;  in  fact,  the  average  general  purpose  farm 
is  conducted  on  the  single-watering  plan. 

468.  Objections  to  the  Continuous  Water  Supply 
System. — Ordinarily  there  have  been  several  objec- 
tions to  attempting  to  maintain  a  constant  water 
supply.  First,  running  water  is  not  furnished  by  na- 
ture at  every  location,  while  we  are  becoming  more 
and  more  suspicious  of  that  which  is,  as  a  possible 
source  of  contagion.  Storage  tanks  of  sufficient  size 
to   supply  constant   running  water  are   expensive,    in 


2^62         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  way  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  dangerous.  To  run 
the  troughs  full  of  water  once  or  twice  daily  is  to  in- 
vite a  mixture  of  dust  and  hay  stems  in  the  water  that, 
in  the  process  of  drinking,  the  animals  are  liable  to 
draw  into  the  wind-pipe,  while_  much  of  the  most  nu- 
tritious part  of  the  hay  finds  its  way  into  the  water- 
ing trough  to  be  drawn  off  and  wasted  whenever  the 
trough  is  cleaned.  It  is  always  objectionable,  too, 
for  water  intended  for  stock  to  be  exposed  to  the 
breath  of  stabled  animals  on  account  of  the  vapors 
absorbed  by  it. 

469.  Constant  Renewal  Necessary. — No  system  of 
stock  watering  is  successful  which  does  not  supply 
the  animals  with  fresh  water  whenever  it  is  supplied 
at  all,  without  having  to  resort  to  any  extensive  stor- 
age system.  A  small  reserve  supply  is  not  only  al- 
lowable but  necessary ;  but  the  system  which  depends 
on  great  quantities  of  storage  water  exposed  to  the 
dust  and  odors  of  the  place  is  never  suitable. 

470.  The  Gasoline  Engine  a  Necessity. — Excepting 
in  some  few  highly  favored  localities,  some  form  of 
dependable  power  must  be  at  hand  which  is  so  easily 
applied  that  we  may  safely  rely  upon  direct  pump- 
ing, with  scarcely  any  storage  provisions  of  any  kind. 
A  small  pressure  tank,  though,  is  a  great  addition,  in 
the  absence  of  which  a  closed  storage  tank  holding 
two  or  three  barrels  of  water  will  answer  nicely. 
Whichever  is  used,  an  indicator  must  be  attached  to 
regulate  the  amount  of  pressure  in  the  one  case  and 
of  water  in  the  other. 

471.  The  Open  Trough. — The  simplest  method  of 
getting  the  water  constantly  before  the  cattle  is  to 
run  it  directly  into  one  end  of  a  continuous  trough 
and  allow  it  to  drain  out  at  the  other.  This  consumes 
lots   of   water;    all   the   objections   urged   against   the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  363 

old  style  water  systems  may  be  raised  against  it ; 
while  those  cattle  at  the  end  most  remote  from  the 
inflow  are  entirely  dependent  for  their  own  supply 
upon  the  caprice  of  all  the  other  animals  in  the 
stable. 

472.  Automatic  Troughs. — There  are  several  styles 
of  individual  automatic  troughs  upon  the  market  that 
are  satisfactory,  though  some  of  them  are  rather  ex- 
pensive to  install.  The  water  is  under  very  perfect 
control  though,  and  all  that  is  stored  ahead  is  confined 
in  air-tight  pipes  which  protect  it  from  dust  and  stable 
odors. 

473.  A  Home  Made  Substitute. — For  the  drinking 
wells  a  row  of  ordinary  granite  wash  basins  are  not 
at  all  bad,  although  a  dish  measuring  a  little  less  in 
diameter  would  be  somewhat  better.  These  are  all 
fitted  snugly  into  wooden  seats  or  collars  that  hold 
them  rigid  and  distribute  the  strain  well  over  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  the  basin.  It  is  but  to  so  arrange 
them  that  they  may  be  easily  removed  for  cleaning 
whenever  desirable. 

Behind  these  and  supported  to  the  back  of  the 
manger,  an  inch  or  inch-and-a-quarter  pipe  serves  as 
the  main  conductor,  and  from  it  a  half-inch  (or  less) 
tee  located  opposite  each  basin  permits  water  to 
escape  through  a  discharge  pipe  coming  up  over  and 
then  down  into  the  basin.  The  main  pipe  should  be 
so  placed  that  the  top  surface  of  the  water  it  con- 
tains is  rather  less  than  two  inches  above  the  bottom 
of  the  basins.  This  insures  about  two  inches  of  water 
always  in  each  basin,  a  quantity  so  small  that  the 
arguments  against  standing  water  do  not  apply  to  it 
with  any  great  force.  One  draught  of  the  animal 
empties  the  basin  and  starts  the  water  to  flowing  in 
until  the  level  in  the  pipe  is  reached  again.     At  niglit 


364  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

and  in  cold  weather  the  main  pipe  may  be  drained  by 
a  spigot  at  the  lower  end,  or  a  small  stream  left  run- 
ning, and  all  danger  of  freezing  is  avoided.  Perhaps 
the  gasoline  engine  does  not  seem  to  have  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  this  system  but  in  the  majority  of 
barns  the  plan  would  be  impracticable  were  it  not 
for  some  power  that  could  be  called  upon  readily  and 
that  would  always   respond. 

474.  Advantages  of  This  System.— Aside  from  the 
benefits  of  a  constant  supply  of  unpolluted  water, 
there  are  several  other  advantages.  The  supply  comes 
rather  slowly  to  each  animal,  if  the  discharge  pipes 
are  small,  and  rapid  drinking  is  discouraged.  The 
water,  pumped  from  far  below  the  surface,  is  freer 
from  contagious  influences  and  dangerous  germs  of 
all  kinds.  It  is  practically  never  exposed  even  to  the 
air  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  well  until  it  is  dis- 
charged into  the  animal's  basin.  Neither  does  one 
animal  have  to  drink  what  another  has  left.  There 
is  no  danger  through  the  transmission  of  disease  from 
the  drinking  water  and  a  well  balanced  system  with 
a  capacity  reasonably  tempered  to  the  size  of  the 
herd  admits  of  no  contaminated  water  finding  its  way 
from  any  herd  to  any  near-by  stream.  The  amount 
of  water  which  enters  this  system  and  escapes  it  save 
through  the  stomachs  of  the  animals  is  so  small  that 
it  filters  into  the  earth  and  is  purified  before  find- 
ing its  way  to  any  natural  channel.  The  matter  of 
temperature,  too,  is  of  considerable  importance. 
While  it  has  not  been  found  advantageous  to  regu- 
larly heat  water  for  animals,  it  is  none  the  less  in- 
jurious to  them  to  be  compelled  to  drink  that  which 
is  far  below  the  normal.  A  milch  cow  promptly 
shows  this  in  shrinkage  of  milk.  The  effect  is  just  as 
serious  to  the  beef  animal,  only  the  latter  is  not  sup- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  365 

plied  with  a  natural  thermometer  that  we  can  read 
as  readily  as  we  can  the  record  of  the  milk  pail. 
Water  pumped  from  deep  in  the  earth  and  not  sub- 
ject to  any  great  change  of  temperature,  winter  or 
summer,  never  chills  or  shocks  the  sensitive  nervous 
system  of  a  cow,  while  that  which  varies  with  the 
weather  is  almost  sure  to  do  so. 

475.  The  Work  of  the  Engine. — Any  watering 
system  which  depends  upon  anything  but  gravity  or 
some  form  of  natural  delivery  must  have  back  of  it 
a  source  of  power  which  is  actually  dependable ;  one 
that  can  be  used  whenever  needed,  and  one  so  conve- 
nient that  it  will  be  used.  Without  such  a  power, 
meaning  the  gasoline  engine  in  most  cases,  watering 
systems  like  this  would  be  worse  than  useless,  be- 
cause, once  depended  upon,  if  something  went  wrong 
with  them  suddenly,  their  very  completeness  at  or- 
dinary times  would  make  us  forget  to  provide  against 
possible  failure. 

476.  Flushing  Out  the  Gutters. — One  form  of 
gasoline  engine  efficiency  in  the  stable  has  never  been 
appreciated  as  it  should  be,  excepting  by  the  few  who 
have  the  system  in  operation.  That  is  in  the  flush- 
ing out  and  better  cleansing  of  the  gutters  and  the 
application  of  the  manure  upon  the  fields  in  its  best 
form. 

477.  Stable  Arrangement  Necessary. — In  order  to 
adopt  this  system  it  is  necessary  that  the  stable  be 
provided  Avith  good  gutters,  either  cement  or  wood ; 
then  it  is  the  work  of  the  engine  to  supply  plenty 
of  water  and  good  pressure,  either  direct  from  the 
pump  or  from  a  pressure  or  storage  tank.  One  other 
duty  the  engine  must  perform  as  already  referred  to ; 
the  chaffing  of  all  the  hay,  fodder  and  bedding  used 
in  the  stables. 


366         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

478.  The  Flushing  Process  Easier  and  More  Sani- 
tary.— Instead  of  scraping  out  the  gutters  with  a 
fork  or  shovel  and  leaving  every  crack  and  depres- 
sion reeking  with  filth  and  germs,  both  gutters  and 
floors  are  washed  clean  by  means  of  a  hose,  with 
water  under  pressure.  The  work  is  done  more  quickly 
and  thoroughly  than  is  possible  in  any  other  way, 
and  the  process  is  far  more  agreeable  to  the  man  who 
does  it.  Everything  is  either  reduced  to  a  liquid  form 
or  at  least  held  in  suspension  until  it  can  be  removed 
from  the  stable ;  while  every  crevice,  no  matter  how 
small,  is  searched  out  and  thoroughly  cleansed,  in- 
stead of  being  left  to  ferment  and  form  a  harbor  for 
vermin  and  disease. 

479.  Final  Disposal  on  the  Fields. — From  the 
end  of  the  gutter  the  liquid  is  conducted  by  any  con- 
venient method  directly  into  a  tight  manure  vat  or 
tank,  which  is  mounted  on  wheels.  This  should  be 
provided  with  some  sort  of  agitator  operated  by  means 
of  gearing,  to  insure  against  the  undissolved  particles 
settling  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  When  hauled  to 
the  field  the  contents  may  be  far  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed through  a  coarse  sprinkling  attachment  than 
the  best  spreader  can  do  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions,  Avhile  there  is  none  of  the  hard  lifting 
ordinarily  required  in  loading  up. 

No  other  method  of  stable  cleaning  is  so  free  from 
lifting  or  unpleasantness.  No  other  is  so  economical 
in  the  application  of  the  manure  upon  the  field.  No 
other  method  gets  it  into  the  earth  as  a  plant  food  so 
quickly,  all  through  the  water  and  the  pressure,  which 
the  engine  supplies. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

THE  WORK-SHOP. 

480.  Its  Purpose. — The  farm  work-shop  is  required 
for  two  purposes  ;  for  making  things  and  for  repair- 
ing them.  Of  the  two  objects  the  last  is  undoubtedly 
of  greatest  importance.  Because  of  his  greater  re- 
moteness from  the  town  or  village  shop,  the  farmer 
must  always  depend  more  upon  his  own  skill  in  keep- 
ing his  tools  in  order  than  his  city  brother  has  to  do ; 
and  a  good  farm  repair  shop,  with  a  good  man  back 
of  it,  always  means  better  kept  farming  tools,  more 
conveniences,  more  efficient  work  and  better  farming. 

481.  As  Trouble  Healer. — The  great  mission  of  the 
farm  repair  shop  is  in  the  prompt  removal  of  possible 
trouble  before  trouble  itself  comes.  When  the  re- 
pair of  a  weakened  part  means  a  trip  to  town,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  continue  using  it  as  it  is  so  long 
as  it  holds  at  all ;  then  it  frequently  gives  way  in 
the  midst  of  the  very  busiest  time,  when  it  is  being 
put  to  the  greatest  use,  and  often  with  disastrous  re- 
sults to  the  entire  machine.  We  do  not  like  to  spend 
too  much  time  and  money  making  repairs  until  we 
see  for  a  certainty  whether  the  part  is  ever  going  to 
break  or  not.  With  our  own  work-shop  handy  though, 
and  well  enough  equipped  to  be  efficient  without  add- 
ing to  our  drudgery,  the  first  rainy  half  hour  will 
probably  see  the  part  made  good  as  ever,  and  save 
an  expensive  breakdown. 

482.  A   Good  Equipment. — Almost  any  farm  pos- 

367 


368         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

sesses  a  grindstone,  an  emery  wheel,  perhaps  a  lathe 
and  a  saw  arbor.  All  of  these  are  valuable  only  as 
they  are  made  use  of.  When  their  use  means  an 
extra  session  with  the  tread  mill  there  is  a  human 
tendency  to  postpone  work  that  might,  if  promptly 
done,  increase  the  efficiency  of  our  regular  work. 
Even  a  grindstone  may  easily  become  a  source  of 
drudgery  to  some  one,  usually  the  boy  of  the  farm. 
Anyone  who  has  ever  turned  one  by  hand  for  an 
hour  at  a  time  appreciates  the  tendency  to  slight  the 
grinding  of  the  mow^er  knives  or  to  let  the  axes  and 
hoes  go  with  less  keen  edges  than  they  ought  to  carry. 
The  emery  wheel  loses  much  of  its  efficiency  unless 
speeded  up  well ;  while  the  farm  lathe  must  either  be 
too  light  for  real  efficiency  in  order  to  keep  within  rea- 
sonable foot  power  limits  or  it  is  certain  to  have 
weeks  of  rest  that  it  has  never  earned. 

483.  The  Engine  in  the  Work-shop. — The  gasoline 
engine  in  the  farm  work-shop  is  out  of  place ;  it  has 
no  business  there.  Connected  to  the  end  of  a  line 
shaft  running  the  work-shop  machinery  it  is  the  ideal 
power,  but  the  union  should  be  neighborly  only,  not 
domestic.  Emery  dust,  grit  from  the  grindstone,  even 
the  floating  particles  of  wood,  notably  cedar,  have  an 
abrading  tendency,  wdiich  is  disastrous  to  the  engine 
cylinder;  while  we  have  already  seen  that  nothing 
is  more  disastrous  to  the  valves  than  particles  of  shav- 
ings or  an  accumulation  of  light  dust  of  the  air  drawn 
through  the  carburetor. 

484.  The  Proper  Place. — The  proper  place  for  the 
gasoline  engine  is  either  in  an  enclosure  adjoining 
the  work-shop  or  with  a  good  tight  partition  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  shop  air.  It  must  be  belted  to  a  line 
shaft  anyway,  in  order  to  allow  us  to  start  and  stop 
any  machine  in  the  shop  at  will.     There  is  no  neces- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


369 


sity  for  having  it  in  the  same  room  the  machines  are 
in. 

485.  An  Ideal  Shop  Arrangement. — The  shop  itself 
should  be  equipped  with  a  good  roomy  bench  along 
one  side,  the  lower  part  of  which  may  contain  a  sys- 
tem of  drawers  and  cupboards  for  the  convenient 
storing  of  the  bench  tools ;  or  a  near-by  cabinet  of 
drawers  made  from  boxes  of  one  size  may  be  pre- 
ferred.     If  the   shop   is   in   the   barn,   the   position   of 


Fig.  122. — A  Handy  Shop  Engine,  Equipped  With  Countershaft 
and   Three   Different   Sizes   of   Driving   Pulleys. 


the  power  shaft  must  be  determined  by  that  of  the 
engine,  which  will,  of  course,  be  the  same  one  which 
provides  power  for  other  barn  work.  If  a  separate 
shop  is  to  be  built,  it  should  be  quite  long  in  propor- 
tion to  its  width  and,  if  located  near  the  house,  can 
wxll  be  arranged  for  a  shop  at  one  end  and  a  laundry 
at  tlie  other. 

486.  The  Engine's  Position. — The  engine  should 
preferably  be  installed  near  the  center  of  the  build- 
ing and  one  line  shaft  run  the  full  length,  near  the 
ceiling.  This  gets  the  shaft  out  of  the  way  better 
than  any  other  location  and  prevents  accidents.     By 


370  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

belting  the  engine  to  it  near  the  center  instead  of 
at  one  end  a  good  deal  of  torsion  or  twist  is  avoided. 
No  matter  how  well  the  shaft  is  put  up,  if  the  power 
is  applied  at  the  end  there  is  more  or  less  of  this 
twisting  tendency,  which  in  field  machinery  becomes 
side  draft.  The  shaft  may  be  so  rigidly  held  that  it 
will  stay  in  place  and  do  its  work  all  right ;  still  there 
will  be  considerable  lost  energy,  consumed  by  the  ex- 
tra friction,  and  friction  ahvays  means  w^ear  as  well 
as  work.  For  this  reason  the  longer  shaft  can  be 
run  and  two  rooms  equipped  with  power  as  easily  as 
the  shop  alone,  and  at  less  cost  of  friction. 


Fig.    123. — The   Most  Important  Farm  Implement. 

487.  Connecting  Engine  to  Work. — For  ordinary 
farm  shop  work  a  i-fV  shaft  will  probably  be  the 
best  size,  although,  if  of  considerable  length,  the 
hangers  should  be  close  enough  together  to  insure 
against  an}^  possible  tendency  to  spring.  Remember 
always  that  a  bent  shaft  requires  the  engine  to  bend 
or  spring  it  into  line  by  "main  force"  every  time  the 
shaft  turns  over,  and  when  that  is  a  good  many  times 
per  minute  it  wastes  a  good  deal  of  engine  energy  be- 
sides wrenching  the  machinery.  The  shaft  may  be 
equipped  w4th  tight  and  loose  pulleys  for  each  ma- 
chine to  be  connected,  or  loose  belts  and  tighteners 
may  be  used.  The  former  are  the  best  in  most  cases 
and  they  cost  the  most  to  install.     For  directions  as 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


371 


to  size  of  pulleys  and  belts  required,  see  chapters  on 
Belts,  Pulleys,  etc. 

488.  Locating  Machines. — Where  convenient  it  is 
always  best  to  install  the  heaviest  machines,  that  is, 
those  that  require  the  most  power,  nearest  the  en- 
gine.    Always  remember  that,  no  matter  how  rigidly 


Fig.  124. — Gray  Engine  Driving  Bandsaw  in  Wood-working  Shop. 

the  shaft  is  held  to  its  place,  side  draft  or  twist  still 
remains  in  the  line  of  working  energy  whenever  the 
pull  of  the  machine  operated  is  at  one  side  of  the 
engine  working  line,  and  the  farther  to  one  side  it 
is  removed  the  greater  is  that  strain.  If  a  heavy 
lathe  is  installed  it  should  be  placed  near  the  parti- 
tion next  to  the  engine  room,  while  something  of 
light  draught,  though  of  steadier  use,  should  be  re- 
served for  attachment  at  the  further  end.  Light  ma- 
chines, such  as  emery  wheels,  jig-saws,  small  cut-off 
saws,  etc.,  may  be  located  along  the  bench  at  the  most 
convenient  places.     Among  the  light  power  machines 


Z7^ 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farai 


which  should  by  all  means  be  included  in  the  work- 
shop equipment  is  a  small  rip  saw  suitable  for  rip- 
ping up  plank.  A  six  or  eight-inch  saw  will  be  suffi- 
cient and  a  self  feed  equipment  is  not  necessary.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  other  single  experience  which  will 
bring  out  the  blessing  of  power  in  the  work-shop 
so  much  as  will  one  job  of  plank  ripping  with  the  cir- 
cle saw  in  comparison  with  the  old  back-breaking 
laborious  way. 

489.     Effect   on   Man   and   Boy. — The   introduction 
of   power   into   the   repair   shop    will    make    so    many 


p 

Wood   YiTork   Bcr>cV» 

0^ 

. 

1^^ 

/Jnva^ 

Torrit 

0 

(ivindstonc 

/4o) 

Dff 

Fig.  125. — General  Farm  Workshop  Floor  Plan,  Showing  Good 
Arrangement  of  Machines  and  Housing  of  Engine  In  Sepa- 
rate Compartment  to  Reduce   Fire   Risk. 


labor-saving  machines  available,  that  are  not  of  much 
practical  use  without  it,  that  the  care  and  repair  of 
the  farm  implements  soon  become  a  pleasure,  in- 
stead of  a  dreaded  task  that  has  been  in  the  past  too 
often  neglected.  Then  labor-saving  devices  will  be 
studied  out  and  made  in  spare  minutes  which  will 
gradually  make  the  equipment  of  the  whole  farm 
more  complete,  convenient  and  up  to  date.    Gradually, 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  373 

too,  the  habit  of  noting  the  condition  of  tools  more 
closely  will  be  formed,  the  little  defects  noticed  and 
remembered  as  they  come  to  us  in  our  field  work ; 
and  the  defect  will  be  remedied  at  the  first  leisure 
time.  Without  this  observation  habit,  the  weakness 
might  have  been  forgotten  as  soon  as  the  occasion 
for  annoyance,  because  of  it,  had  passed.  In  no  other 
place  more  than  the  shop  does  the  engine  develop  in 
the  man  and  the  boy  the  attention  and  thorough  care 
of  their  equipment. 


374 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


o 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
THE   FARM   WOOD-PILE. 

490.  Two  Memories. — There  are  two  memories, 
either  in  combination  or  one  of  them  alone,  which 
even  yet  disturb  the  farm  boy  of  yesterday  with 
dreams  of  cold  fingers,  backaches  and  frozen  mit- 
tens— and  ahvays  more  of  it  ahead.  One  of  them  is 
flavored  with  the  old  cross-cut  and  its  never-ending 
toll  of  hard  work  and  spoiled  half-holidays.  The  other 
is  still  accompanied  by  the  grating  ring  of  the  neigh- 
borhood buzz-saw,  which  always  meant  weeks  of 
strenuous  log-piling  and  splitting  in  advance,  a  couple 
of  days  of  almost  killing  work  throwing  the  cut  blocks 
of  wood  upon  high  piles,  always  hurrying  to  "keep 
ahead  of  the  saw,"  or  else  "to  keep  the  saw  busy,"  and 
with  the  consciousness  that  there  were  days  of  this 
ahead  helping  the  neighbors  through  similar  jobs.  Al- 
ways, too,  there  was  the  consciousness  that  the  very 
hardest  part  of  this,  the  piling  up  of  those  great  log 
heaps  and  the  great  stacks  of  wood,  that  all  had  to  be 
undone  again  as  time  afforded,  was  labor  wasted ;  that 
it  was  only  necessary,  because,  in  the  hurry  that  the 
one  or  two  day  job  of  buzzing  required,  things  had  to 
be  done  the  hardest  way  because  there  was  no  time 
for  any  other. 

491.  A  Thankless  Task. — Nothing  is  more  dis- 
couraging than  to  do  the  hardest  kind  of  work  for 
hours  or  days,  knowing  all  the  time  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely  resultless   work   and   that   it  is   only  necessary 

375 


376         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

because  of  inefficient  planning;  that  an  easier  way 
would  be  even  more  efficient.  Those  high  piles  of 
logs  were  required  because,  with  the  saw  only  avail- 
able for  a  day  or  two  and  at  a  high  cost  for  ma- 
chine and  men  per  hour,  the  material  had  to  be  at 
hand ;  but  it  meant  that  all  of  the  hard  lifting  was 
only  to  be  undone  almost  as  soon  as  finished ;  that 
the  big  wood  pile,  builded  up  by  one  laborious  swing 
of  aching  arms  for  each  stick  it  contained  was  only 
a  temporary  affair,  to  be  torn  down  again  and  hauled 
to  the  house  as  soon  as  there  was  time.  All  of  the 
hardest  work  in  the  job  was  due  to  inconvenient  and 
inefficient  methods,  but  methods  which,  nevertheless, 
seemed  the  best  that  could  be  used, 

492.  What  It  Really  Cost. — Much  of  that  hard 
work  was  condoned  by  the  thought  that  "the  boys" 
were  at  home  and  the  farm  labor  cost  little  or  noth- 
ing. It  probably  cost  many  a  farmer  the  help  he 
afterwards  needed  from  his  grown-up  boys,  and  it 
no  doubt  cost  many  a  boy  who  was  unfitted  for  the 
struggle  for  existence  in  the  city,  but  who  was  driven 
from  the  farm  by  just  such  tasks,  long  years  of  dis- 
appointment; perhaps  a  ruined  life.  If  we  were  to 
ask  a  number  of  farm-bred  men  who  are  now  strug- 
gling in  the  congested  cities,  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, why  they  left  the  farm,  it  is  likely  that  at  least 
eight  out  of  ten  of  them  would  think  first  of  the 
wood-pile,  the  old  pump,  the  grindstone  and  similar 
bits  of  every-day  drudgery,  before  they  would  an- 
swer. It  was  just  such  tasks  as  these  that  convinced 
most  of  them  the  farm  was  only  a  big  factory  for 
turning  out  hard  work  and  most  of  it  of  a  hopeless, 
ineft'ectual  kind. 

493.  To-day's  Wood-pile. — Methods  of  that  sort 
would  be  even  more  expensive  now.     Good  farm  labor 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  377 

is  scarce,  and  time  is  worth  money.  Then,  too,  the 
trees  which  were  then  only  fit  for  fuel  are  plenty  good 
enough  for  lumber  now,  while  the  material  for  fire- 
wood has  to  come  from  sources  which  would  then 
have  been  despised.  The  straight-grained  maples  that 
split  easily  are  no  longer  food  for  the  buzz-saw.  In- 
stead, the  wood-pile  is  replenished  from  the  occasional 
windfall  from  which  the  best  of  the  body  wood  has 
been  removed  for  boards ;  from  the  scraggly  apple 
tree ;  from  the  old  rail  fence.  Not  even  boy  labor 
would  justify  the  time  and  teamwork  necessary  to 
handle  these  odds  and  ends  of  the  woodlot  in  the  way 
the  ''buzz  wood"  was  formerly  managed,  and  on  many 
farms  these  are  permitted  to  rot  where  they  fall,  be- 
cause it  costs  more  to  work  them  up  than  to  buy 
coal. 

494.  Why  Popular. — The  gasoline  engine  has  made 
the  wood-pile  of  to-day  a  popular  place  with  the  aver- 
age healthy  farm  boy.  It  is  worth  a  trip  to  the  woods 
for  a  load  of  logs  for  the  privilege  of  running  the 
engine  long  enough  to  saw  them  up.  The  work  does 
not  have  to  be  done  at  break-neck  speed  and  it  does 
not  last  so  long  that  every  muscle  in  the  body  is  pro- 
testing ;  neither  does  the  wood  have  to  be  thrown  upon 
a  pile  that  will  presently  all  have  to  be  torn  down 
and  piled  over  again.  The  wood  is  cut  with  the  mini- 
mum amount  of  handling  and  all  the  work  required 
can  be  efificiently  applied  so  there  is  no  dissatisfac- 
tion in  the  thought  that  it  is  energy  thrown  away. 
Enough  logs  can  be  hauled  up  for  a  reasonable  run 
without  having  to  lift  them  upon  a  high  pile  or  drop 
them  back  too  far  from  the  work.  Wood-cutting  now 
is  a  glimpse  of  modern  life,  instead  of  drudgery  and, 
if  the  boy  should  ever  leave  the  farm,  one  of  the 
pleasant  memories  that  will  occasionally  call  to  him 


378  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

will  be  that  of  the  gasoline  engine  that  he  had  to  leave 
behind  him  when  he  went. 

495.     The  Circle  Saw  Rig. — For  cutting  up  limbs, 
old  rails,  tops  and  small  logs,  the  circle  saw  still  has 


Fig.   127. — Gasoline  Engine  and  Circular  Saw  Outfit  in  Portable 

Form. 


the  call,  although  the  drag  saw  will  require  less  heavy 
work,  used  in  connection  with  logs  of  considerable 
size. 

Any  farm  machinery  supply  house  will  furnish  a 
good  circle  saw  outfit,  or  one  may  almost  make  his 
own.  There  are  several  styles  on  the  market,  not 
different  in  general  principle  and  only  differing  in 
those  little  details  which  mark  the  variety  in  personal 
tastes.  A  wooden  or  iron  frame  to  hold  the  saw  arbor 
and  that  may  be  anchored  securely  to  some  solid  foun- 
dation ;  a  tilting  or  sliding  table ;  a  four-foot  steel 
shaft,  i^  inches  or  more  in  diameter  and  with  saw 
arbor  and  flanges  at  one  end ;  three  babbitted  boxes 
bored  for  bolting  to  the  frame;  a  loo-pound  balance 
wheel,  a  6x6  or  5x6  crown-face  pulley;  a  saw 
guard ;  these,  with  a  20  to  24-inch  saw  and  a  good  two 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  379 

or  three  horse-power  engine  will  keep  one  or  two  men 
fairly  busy ;  or,  if  the  rig  is  turned  over  to  the  boys, 
it  will  cut  more  wood  in  the  course  of  the  afternoon 
than  they  would  willingly  cut  all  winter ;  two  or  four 
cords  per  hour  being  an  entire  possibility,  providing 
there  is  provision  for  getting  it  to  the  saw  and  tak- 
ing it  away. 

496.  Power  Required. — With  a  somewhat  heavier 
engine,  say  a  five  or  six  H.  P.,  a  28  to  30-inch  saw 
may  be  easily  run  and,  with  a  force  of  four  men,  50 
or  60  cords  a  day  may  be  cut  and  piled.  The  fact 
remains,  however,  that  on  level  ground  there  is  con- 
siderable lifting  to  do.  On  the  ordinary  farm  the 
smaller  size  is  best ;  then  the  work  can  be  taken  in 
smaller  doses  and  less  unnecessary  work  in  repiling 
will  be  required. 

497.  The  Best  Rig. — If  the  saw  is  to  be  taken  to 
the  work  a  traction  rig  is  an  advantage,  or  at  least 
a  mounted  portable  power.  For  this  purpose  one  of 
the  home-made  tractors  produced  from  the  junk  pile, 
at  the  cost  of  a  few  idle  days  and  perhaps  a  dozen 
dollars,  is  just  the  thing.  It  will  not  be  strong  enough 
to  draw  a  load  behind,  but  may  quite  readily  be  made 
self-moving,  which  is  all  a  wood  sawing  rig  requires. 
Bolt  the  engine  securely  to  the  bed  timbers  over  the 
drive  Vv^heels  and  the  saw  frame  over  the  front  trucks. 
Once  bolted  in  place  to  the  same  timbers,  there  will 
be  no  bother  about  having  to  line  up  the  engine  with 
the  rig  every  time  it  is  moved. 

498.  Setting  Up. — If  convenient,  run  the  rig  below 
a  bank  upon  which  the  logs  can  be  hauled  ;  then  lay 
skids  from  bank  to  saw  table.  The  rear  end  of  the 
log  may  be  held  up  by  extending  a  part  of  the  skids; 
or,  better,  support  a  steel  rod  on  tripods  and  bolt  upon 
it  some  form  of  track-door  hanger  or  hay  carrier  that 


380         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

runs  upon  a  single  rod.  From  this  suspend  a  double 
rope,  the  one  end  reaching  within  a  couple  of  feet  of 
the  level  of  the  saw  table  and  terminating  in  a  few 
rather  large  links  of  chain.  The  other  rope  should 
be  long  enough  to  reach  around  a  small  log  as  it  lies 
on  a  level  with  the  saw  table  and  should  be  provided 
at  the  end  with  a  hook.  The  logs  may  then  be  hauled 
by  team  poAver  upon  the  bank,  rolled  along  the  skid- 
way  until  nearly  upon  the  saw  table  at  one  end ;  then 
by  throwing  the  rope  about  the  other  end,  raising  it 
slightly  and  catching  the  hook  into  the  proper  link 
in  the  chain  and  then  rolling  it  from  the  skidway,  a 
carriage  will  be  improvised  that  will  move  the  log 
forward  as  required  with  the  minimum  of  friction  and 
with  practically  no  lifting.  By  rigging  a  6  x  6-inch 
hard-wood  timber  upon  supports  and  spiking  regular 
door  track  along  one  side,  two  and  even  three  hangers 
can  be  rigged  which  will  not  only  support  the  entire 
log  and  allow  it  to  swing  free  from  all  rigid  supports, 
but  would  have  the  advantage  of  permitting  it  to 
swing  against  the  saw  with  far  less  muscular  effort 
than  where  a  table  is  used.  A  permanent  rig  of  this 
sort  just  outside  the  wood-shed  will  permit  the  run- 
ning of  the  logs  under  cover  during  the  actual  saw- 
ing, the  saw  frame  and  engine  being  set  inside.  The 
work  could  then  be  done  in  stormy  weather  and  the 
wood  be  stored  in  the  shed  as  fast  as  sawed. 

499.  The  Drag  Saw. — For  larger  work  the  drag 
saw  has  a  number  of  advantages.  It  handles  logs 
of  any  size  without  turning  and  does  not  require  that 
they  be  lifted  up  to  it  or  shoved  forward  by  hand 
power.  Though  slower  than  the  circle  saw,  it  can 
be  arranged  to  go  on  working,  once  it  is  set  and  put 
in  motion,  and  permit  the  operator  to  split  or  pile 
the  blocks  already  sawed  off.  so  there  need  be  no  time 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  381 

lost.  Considering  the  man-power  it  requires,  a  drag 
saw  well  set-up  and  operated  will  probably  accom- 
plish as  much  as  the  average  circle  saw,  and  do  it  with 
less  previous  preparation. 


Fig.  128. — A  Drag  Saw  Worked  by  Engine  Power. 

500.  Construction. — Drag-saw  frames  can  be  pur- 
chased, or  they  can  easily  be  made  on  the  farm  and 
the  conditions  under  which  they  operate  vary  so  much 
that  this  is  often  the  best  plan.  Two  6x6  hard-wood 
sills  should  be  tied  together  by  three  2  x  8  or  four 
2x6  planks,  which  should  be  morticed  in  and  bolted. 
Two  6-inch  uprights,  four  feet  long,  should  be  se- 
curely bolted  and  braced  upon  one  sill,  with"  a  two- 
inch  block  between  at  top  and  bottom.  A  small  wheel 
fastened  to  a  slide  works  freely  up  and  down  between 
these  guides.  This  carries  the  weight  of  the  saw 
frame  and  is  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  a  rope 
carried  over  a  grooved  pulley  to  a  lever.  This  may 
be  arranged  to  hold  the  saw  in  place  when  lifted,  by 
means  of  a  quadrant,  or  merely  with  a  hook,  the 
weight  of  the  frame  being  allowed  to  rest  upon  the 
log  when  lowered. 

The  pulley  for  the  engine  belt  should  be  between 
the  sills.  This,  in  turn,  belted  to  a  countershaft, 
should  reduce  the  speed  of  the  latter  to  about  70  rev- 
olutions per  minute.  At  one  end  of  the  countershaft, 
preferably  at  each  end,  if  steady  running  is  desired. 


382         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

there  should  be  a  balance  wheel,  one  of  them  pro- 
vided with  a  crank-pin  on  its  rim.  A  hard-wood  arm, 
with  a  brass  bushing  at  one  end  for  the  crank-pin, 
is  clamped  solidly  to  the  saw  at  the  other  and  works 
between  the  two  four-foot  uprights.  If  an  ordinary 
cross-cut  blade  is  used  it  should  be  made  rigid  by 
clamping  an  upright  iron  at  each  end  to  a  slide  arm 
18  or  20  inches  above  the  blade ;  otherwise  there  would 
be  constant  danger  of  a  kinked  or  broken  saw.  Short 
legs  should  raise  the  machine  just  high  enough  to 
give  the  balance  wheels  room  to  revolve,  though  the 
shorter  they  can  be  the  less  will  the  log  being  sawed 
have  to  be  raised  from  the  ground.  The  diameter 
of  the  crank  wheel  must,  of  course,  be  the  same  as 
the  desired  sweep  of  the  saw.  The  sills  must  be  long 
enough  for  mounting  the  engine  back  of  the  saw  rig, 
so  that  all  danger  of  its  shifting  in  relation  to  its 
work  or  the  trouble  of  lining  up  is  done  away  with. 

In  front  of  the  rig  construct  a  narrow  log  slide  con- 
taining a  series  of  rollers  along  the  bottom  and  with 
a  groove  around  their  center  sufficiently  deep  for  a 
half-inch  steel  cable  to  pass  over  freely.  This  cable 
terminates  at  the  one  end  in  an  ordinary  log  hook 
while  the  other  passes  the  length  of  the  slide  through 
the  grooves  and  around  a  grooved  sheave  at  the  end 
of  the  slide  from  which  it  goes  to  a  drum  revolving 
loosely  on  (not  with)  the  shaft  for  the  engine  belt 
pulley.  A  taper  or  cone  pulley,  leather-faced,  is 
mounted  beside  this  drum  which  revolves  with  the 
shaft.  A  few  inches  of  the  shaft  should  be  squared 
for  the  cone  pulley  to  slide  on  and  still  revolve  with 
the  shaft  in  any  position.  This  virtually  makes  a 
friction  clutch  and  by  means  of  a  shifting  fork  the 
cone  may,  by  being  forced  into  the  drum,  lock  it  to 
revolve  with  the  shaft  or,  by  releasing  the  lever,  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  383 

drum  will  remain  stationary  while  the  cone  and  shaft 
are  still  rotating. 

501.  To  Operate  Drag-saw  Rig. — The  log  to  be 
sawed  is  rolled  upon  the  slide,  which  is  adjusted  in 
width  so  that  the  weight  rests  upon  the  rollers  in 
the  bottom  and  the  log  hook  at  the  end  of  the  wire 
cable  is  driven  into  the  end .  most  remote  from  the 
saw.  By  means  of  a  loose  or  friction  pulley  on  the 
engine  belt,  the  countershaft  which  runs  the  crank 
wheel  and  the  saw  is  started  and  at  the  same  time  the 
blade  is  allowed  to  rest  lightly  upon  the  top  of  the 
log,  the  entire  weight  being  gradually  let  down  after 
the  saw  is  in  full  motion.  While  the  cut  is  being 
made  the  taper  pulley  revolves  with  the  drum  upon 
the  shaft.  As  soon  as  it  is  completed  the  saw  frame 
is  raised  clear  of  the  log  and  stopped  at  the  same 
time  by  releasing  the  friction  pulley;  then  the  shift- 
ing fork  is  made  to  crowd  the  cone  into  the  drum 
and  turn  it  with  the  shaft.  This  winds  the  cable  upon 
the  drum  and  so  draws  the  log  hook  and  log  endwise 
along  the  slide  toward  the  saw.  For  convenience  a 
log  stop  or  buffer  should  be  set  across  the  slide  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  blade  and  this  should  be  ad- 
justable for  any  length  cut  desired.  When  the  log 
advances  until  it  strikes  this  stop,  the  shifting  fork 
is  reversed,  the  drum  ceases  to  revolve  and  the  saw 
may  be  let  down  and  started  as  before.  By  lock- 
ing the  friction  pulley  to  its  place  the  operator  can 
then  leave  the  rig  to  itself,  while  carrying  on  other 
work,  until  the  next  cut  is  nearly  completed.  A  well- 
made  rig  of  this  sort  will  handle  almost  any  size  log, 
without  lifting  or  wasted  work  and  it  may  be  kept  in 
such  steady  operation  that  the  amount  a  single  oper- 
ator can  do  with  it  in  a  day's  run  is  quite  surprising. 

502.  A  Complete  Automatic  Rig. — Occasionally  it 


384         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

may  be  found  convenient  for  the  operator  to  devote 
nearly  the  whole  of  his  time  to  other  work  near  by, 
such  as  splitting  and  piling  up  the  wood  as  it  is  cut. 
If  the  work  is  close  at  hand  and  the  logs  not  too 
rough  to  handle  easily,  this  may  be  arranged  by  a 
little  addition  to  the  above  rig. 

The  square  portion  of  the  main  pulley  shaft  must 
be  increased  in  length  and  for  the  single  taper  pul- 
ley we  must  substitute  one  that  tapers  at  both  ends 
and  with  a  narrow  ring  or  ridge  running  around  its 
largest  circumference  at  the  center.  If  a  pulley  of 
this  shape  cannot  be  purchased  one  can  be  turned 
out  of  wood  and  rendered  quite  serviceable  by  hav- 
ing iron  rings  shrunk  upon  each  end.  These  should 
be  recessed  in  and  should  be  flush  with  the  surface 
of  the  wood.  Both  tapers  of  the  pulley  should  be 
leather  faced. 

The  same  loose  drum  is  used  at  one  end.  At  the 
other  a  second  drum  is  mounted,  exactly  similar  to 
the  first.  These  drums  and  the  pulley  between  them 
are  spaced  so  that  the  latter  can  be  shifted  to  engage 
and  lock  either  one  at  will ;  or  it  may  remain  at  the 
center  and  neither  of  the  drums  will  rotate.  The  one 
drum  is  connected  as  before  with  the  cable  that  ad- 
vances the  log;  the  other  with  a  similar  cable,  which 
passes  over  a  grooved  pulley  at  the  top  of  the  guide 
frame  and  so  raises  or  lowers  the  saw,  as  the  drum 
winds  it  up  or  releases  it  and  permits  it  to  unwind. 
When  the  drum  is  released  the  weight  of  the  saw 
frame  unwinds  it.  The  ridge  at  the  center  of  the  pul- 
ley is  a  convenient  means  of  engaging  it  with  the 
shifting  fork. 

A  slot  is  cut  in  the  upright  guide  sufficiently  deep 
to  permit  the  insertion  of  a  one-inch  lever,  an  end 
of  which  is  pivoted  to  the  main  sill.     This  lever  has 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  385 

a  few  inches  vertical  play  and  crosses  the  path  of  the 
slide  which  carries  the  saw  below  and  at  right  angles 
to  it,  but  directly  above  a  toggle  joint.  As  the  log  is 
sawed  and  the  slide  descends  it  reaches  and  presses 
against  the  free  end  of  this  lever  which,  as  it  is 
forced  down,  finally  depresses  the  toggle  below  it  until 
the  latter  is  pressed  shut  and  its  free  end  made  to 
crowd  the  end  of  the  shifting-fork  lever  to  one  side. 
This  forces  the  ccme  into  the  drum  which  raises  the 
frame  of  the  saw  by  winding  up  the  cable.  As  the 
frame  rises  its  top  bar  presses  a  similar  lever  above 
it,  which,  at  a  given  point,  releases  the  toggle  again 
and  shifts  the  pulley  from  the  drum.  At  the  same 
time  a  similar  toggle  has  been  depressed  by  this  sec- 
ond lever  and  the  shifting  fork  made  to  engage  the 
second  drum,  which  advances  the  log.  This  second 
drum  revolves  until  the  log,  pressing  against  the  top, 
releases,  by  means  of  a  rope,  the  second  toggle  and 
returns  the  shifting  fork  to  an  intermediate  position. 
The  second  cut  is  then  ready  to  be  made  without  the 
operator  so  much  as  lifting  his  hand. 

Theoretically,  once  a  log  is  placed  upon  the  slide, 
it  may  be  entirely  sawed  up  before  requiring  the 
slightest  attention ;  in  the  meantime  the  operator 
could  go  to  the  woods  for  another  log.  In  practice, 
while  the  rig  may  be  made  to  work  complete,  it 
should  never  be  left  entirely  to  itself.  All  the  regu- 
lar operations  of  sawing  up  the  entire  log  it  can  be 
made  to  do,  entirely  with  engine  power.  But  logs 
intended  for  wood  are  seldom  straight  or  free  from 
knots,  and  the  little  unexpected  hitches  and  irregu- 
larities inseparable  from  such  rough  work  as  wood 
cutting  require  the  supervision  of  the  human  brain. 
The  man  who  runs  the  rig  may  devote  practically  all 
of  his   time  to  other  work.     He   should  be  at   hand 


386 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


though,  in  case  a  projecting  knot  or  bit  of  bark  should 
happen  to  check  the  advance  of  the  log,  as  otherwise 
the  engine  will  most  certainly  try  to  force  matters, 
possibly  with  disastrous  results  to  engine  or  rig. 


Fig.  129. — Wood  Splitter  Operated  by  Engine  Power  Works  Well 
In  Combination  With  Circular  Saw. 


503.  Wood  Splitting. — Even  wood  splitting  is  now 
done  by  machinery,  some  firms  now  having  upon  the 
market  splitters  that  are  guaranteed  to  split  the  knot- 
tiest oak  or  maple  at  the  rate  of  4  or  5  cords  per  day, 
with  an  engine  of  one  or  two  horse-power.  One  of 
these  and  an  automatic  saw  rig  might  be  run  by  one 
operator  at  nearly  full  capacity. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 
ORCHARD   AND    GARDEN. 

504.  Thorough  Spraying  Essential. — There  are 
some  things  which  produce  results  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  thoroughness  with  which  they  are  done, 
while  others,  unless  the  process  is  complete,  are  en- 
tirely unproductive.  This  is  often  true  of  spraying. 
In  the  lower  branches  of  large  trees  the  work  may  be 
ever  so  thoroughly  done,  but  the  lift  to  the  upper 
limbs,  particularly  when  a  good  many  trees  are 
sprayed,  soon  sets  the  muscles  aching  and  relaxes  our 
diligence.  The  result  is  a  fine  colony  of  some  dreaded 
insect  pest  above  the  spray  line  to  descend  and  undo 
the  thorough  work  we  have  done  lower  down. 

505.  Where  the  Engine  Excels. — A  gasoline  en- 
gine outfit  puts  greater  pressure  upon  the  escaping 
liquid  and  so  divides  it  into  finer  particles.  This  ob- 
viates the  danger  of  damaging  the  foliage  by  drops  of 
over-strong  liquid  falling  upon  the  leaves,  as  the  fine 
spray,  even  though  considerably  more  heavily  charged 
with  the  poison,  distributes  it  so  evenly  over  the  en- 
tire surface  that  a  smaller  quantity  may  be  used  and 
still  be  more  effective.  Then  the  fine  spray,  propelled 
by  a  greater  force,  penetrates  crevices  in  the  wood  or 
nooks  shielded  by  heavy  foliage,  which  no  reason- 
able amount  of  hand  pumping  would  ever  reach.  The 
highest  limbs,  too,  are  as  thoroughly  sprayed  as  those 
nearer  the  ground,  so  there  is  no  danger  of  some  un- 
sprayed    limb,   a   little   beyond    our   reach,   furnishing 

387 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

enough  of  the  pests  to  undo  most  of  the  work  that 
we  have  faithfully  done. 

506.  Nature's  Method. — One  of  the  most  efficient 
methods  of  spraying  is  to  force  the  stream  of  fine 
mist  high  into  the  air  above  the  tree  and  then  let  it 
float  down  by  its  own  weight  into  the  foliage.  This 
is  nature's  method,  and  so  long  as  she  arranges  the 
leaves  for  this  very  purpose  we  may  be  certain  we 
can  do  no  better  than  to  imitate  her  method  of  ap- 
plying liquid,  which  is  always  from  above. 

507.  Real  Purpose  of  Spraying. — Spraying,  from 
being  a  desperate  expedient,  has  become  that  last  atom 
of  human  efTort  which  renders  all  the  rest  effective, 
and  without  which,  more  often  than  not,  the  fruit 
grower's  reward  is  a  half-crop  of  imperfect  and  un- 
marketable fruit,  or  none  at  all.  If  a  single  tree  is 
maintained  at  a  loss  it  is  one  of  those  dangerous  little 
canker-worms  that  devour  the  farm  profits  on  so 
small  a  scale  that  it  is  not  apparent,  yet  just  as  surely 
as  though  it  were  multiplied  by  hundreds  and  formed 
so  large  a  part  of  the  investment  that  to  fail  meant 
ruin. 

Spraying  is  for  protection ;  it  is  not  a  cure ;  and  the 
man  who  does  it  incompletely  either  by  not  half  pene- 
trating the  thick  foliage  or  by  missing  the  higher 
branches  is  like  the  one  who  weatherboards  his  barn 
and  then  leaves  the  roof  frame  uncovered.  It  is  also 
an  operation  which  has  its  own  brief  seasons.  It  is 
specially  effective  then,  while  it  may  be  entirely  use- 
less at  any  other  time.  A  day  later  may  be  compared 
to  leaving  ofT  the  shingles ;  a  week's  delay  after  the 
proper  time  may  be  like  leaving  ofif  the  whole  roof. 

508.  Causes  of  Failure. — There  are  several  reasons 
why  spraying  may  fail  of  its  object,  of  which  the  use 
of  the  gasoline  engine  will  remove  a  number.     Prob- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


389 


390 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


ably  no  other  farm  process  depends  so  vitally  upon 
thorough  work,  because  in  the  dealing  with  insect 
life  that  which  escapes  treatment  on  a  single  un- 
sprayed  limb  may  cover  the  whole  tree  with  the  pest 
that  we  are  fighting  so  completely  that  all  our  thor- 


FiG.    131.-— Gasoline   Engine  With   Triplex    Pump   for  Large   Ca- 
pacity  Spraying  Outfits  or  Water  Supply   Purposes. 


ough  work  on  the  rest  of  the  tree  may  be  practically 
defeated.  This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  necessary  to 
so  drench  the  tree  that  all  of  its  leaves  are  dripping 
with  the  poison  liquid;  indeed,  the  foliage  may  easily 
be  injured  by  just  this  practice ;  and  many  an  orchard- 
ist  has  taken  to  reducing  the  strength  of  his  spray  to 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  391 

the  point  where  it  is  only  partially  effective  under  the 
impression  that  he  had  been  using  it  too  strong,  when, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  trouble  was  in  the  over  quan- 
tity with  which  he  deluged  the  lower  portions  of  the 
tree  in  his  vain  attempt  to  reach  the  higher  limbs. 
For  best  results  the  spray  should  reach  the  entire 
foliage  in  a  fine  mist  that  moistens  the  whole  of  it, 
without  drenching  any  part,  and  this  is  only  possible 
where  power  is  used  and  the  liquid  thrown  with 
enough  force  to  reach  easily  the  most  remote  branches 
and  penetrate  readily  into  the  densest  foliage.  Even 
the  cracks  and  crevices  in  the  bark  must  be  reached 
in  the  case  of  many  fruit  pests — where  the  force  ob- 
tained from  hand  pumping  would  never  penetrate. 
One  of  the  most  efficient  methods  of  spraying  is  to 
force  the  stream  of  fine  mist  high  into  the  air  above 
the  tree  and  let  it  come  down  as  a  fog  by  its  own 
weight  into  the  foliage.  This  is  Nature's  own  method 
of  applying  moisture,  and  the  leaf  growth  has  been 
arranged  with  the  special  object  of  doing  this  most 
thoroughly  and  economically,  and  it  is  very  certain 
that  we  can  do  no  better  than  to  distribute  it  from 
above.  This  method,  if  backed  by  high  pressure,  in- 
sures a  thorough  and  even  distribution  of  the  poison. 
509.  A  Successful  Method. — For  the  best  results 
the  pressure  should  not  be  less  than  from  125  to  150 
pounds,  while  in  practice  the  hand  pump  seldom  rises 
above  50.  The  hose  should  be  long  enough  to  reach 
all  sides  of  the  tree  with  one  setting  and  an  agitator 
of  the  liquid  in  the  tank  should  be  provided.  This  is 
highly  important ;  otherwise,  the  poison  will  settle  to 
the  bottom  and  the  first  of  the  liquid  thrown  will  fail 
of  efficiency  because  too  weak  while  some  of  the 
settlings  will  be  dangerously  strong.  Various  forms 
of  agitators  for  the  smaller  outfits  are  provided,  but 


392 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


they  add  something  to  the  power  required  to  work 
them  and  thereby  become  inefficient  in  hand-power 
outfits,  either  by  being  neglected  or  by  rendering  the 
work  so  much  more  tiring  that  it  will  be  less  thor- 
oughly done.  A  gasoline  engine  never  gets  tired,  and 
the  extra  strain  of  running  a  thoroughly  efficient  agi- 
tator constantly  does  not  trouble  it  at  all ;  so  by  its 
use  the  spray  is  properly  mixed  as  well  as  applied. 


Fig.    132. — A   Typical   Animal   Drawn   Gas   Engine   Operated 
Spraying  Outfit. 

510.  A  Good  Pumping  Outfit. — A  good  spraying 
outfit  may  be  made  with  a  i^  to  2  H.  P.  engine  of 
either  horizontal  or  upright  design.  Quite  frequently 
the  marine  type  is  used  and  is  as  good  as  any  if  prop- 
erly fastened  to  a  foundation.     Usually,  though,  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


393 


394 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


pump  and  engine  mounted  on  a  single  base  or  directly 
connected  are  the  most  satisfactory  as  the  two  are  then 
much  easier  held  in  a  constant  relation  with  each 
other,  while  with  the  two  separately  mounted  the 
chance  of  one  or  the  other  shifting  about  and  disturb- 
ing the  power  connection  is  greater,  especially  if  the 
orchard,  as  often  happens,  is  situated  on  a  hillside  or 
on  broken  ground. 

The  outfit  should  be  so  mounted  that  it  may  be  eas- 
ily turned  and  also  may  be  readily  conveyed  under 
the  low  branches,  although  an  elevated  platform  for 
the  operator  with  an  extension  pipe  is  necessary  where 
the  trees  are  large.  Of  course  the  pump  should  be 
double  acting;  that  is,  water  is  taken  in  and  thrown 


.Sprinklaij.  Lonj  Dijttjict,  Oi»4utir.gVcfTTicM:Noi2!e.  Rtgu! 

Fig.    134. — A    Few    Examples    of    Spraying    Nozzles. 


with  both  the  up  and  the  down  stroke.  It  should  be 
supplied  with  a  relief  valve  for  the  return  of  a  part 
of  the  liquid  to  the  tank  after  the  pressure  gets  too 
great.  Of  course  no  power  outfit  with  which  either 
gas  or  liquids  are  forced  into  an  enclosed  space  can 
safely  dispense  with  a  pressure  indicator;  that  is  as 
indispensable  as  it  is  on  a  steam  boiler,  and  should 
be  as  carefully  watched  for  signs  of  failure. 

511.  Good  Nozzles. — It  would  be  the  height  of 
foolishness  to  provide  an  expensive  spraying  outfit  and 
then  fail  in  the  work  for  want  of  good  nozzles.     Get 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


395 


O 

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in 

O 

I 


396         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  best,  and  do  not  be  satisfied  with  one  or  even 
two.  One  that  will  work  interchangeably  with  another, 
though  of  a  somewhat  different  pattern  and  de- 
signed for  another  purpose,  may  be  the  means  of  sav- 
ing the  day  if  one  of  them  suddenly  plays  out — and 
of  saving  the  crop.  One  of  the  Vermorel  types  is  the 
most  popular.  In  this  the  stream  is  given  a  rotary 
motion  as  it  leaves  the  orifice.  For  power  spraying  a 
grouping  of  nozzles  is  a  great  saving  of  time,  two  or 
more  being  so  arranged  that  they  are  both  used  at 
once  and  vastly  increase  the  area  of  the  tree  Avhich  is 
constantly  being  sprayed.  A  supply  of  coarser  noz- 
zles should  also  be  at  hand  for  use  where  the  trees 
are  to  be  thoroughly  drenched,  as  in  the  case  of  us- 
ing a  lime-sulphur  wash  ;  also  for  spraying  after  the 
petals  have  fallen,  as  the  greater  direct  force  with 
which  the  liquid  is  expelled  carries  it  more  surely 
into  even  the  most  remote  cavities  of  the  calyx. 

512.  The  Hose. — The  best  hose  for  power  spray- 
ing is  ^  inch,  although  the  necessary  couplings  are 
not  quite  so  easily  obtained.  One-half  inch  is  per- 
haps in  most  common  use  and  should  not  be  less  than 
3  or  4  ply.  with  a  pressure  capacity  of  not  less  than 
200  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  is  very  necessary  to 
provide  for  excess  pressure.  Twenty-five  to  50  feet 
is  a  good  length  for  working  on  the  ground  around 
the  trees  and  10  or  12  feet  for  use  with  extension 
rods.  These  are  not  only  necessary  for  getting  into 
the  tops  of  tall  trees  but  are  convenient  for  working 
lower  down  because  they  carry  the  spray  at  any  de- 
sired angle  quite  away  from  the  operator.  Often  Yz- 
inch  gas  pipe  or  less  is  used,  though  bamboo  fitted 
with  brass  or  other  metal  connections  is  lighter  to 
handle  and  very  well  liked.  One  end  of  these  pipes 
is  fitted  for  direct  coupling  with  the  hose  and  should 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


397 


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398  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

be  provided  with  a  stop  cock.  At  the  other  end  the 
nozzle  is  attached.  The  pipes  may  be  made  in  sec- 
tions if  desired  for  different  heights  of  working,  and 
may  total  anywhere  from  8  feet  to  twice  that  height, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  trees.  For  high 
spraying  a  platform  rigid  and  safe  for  the  operator 
to  stand  on  should  be  raised  above  the  wagon  bed 
6  or  8  feet. 

513.  Good  and  Cheap  Outfits. — All  working  parts 
of  the  pumps,  the  bar,  the  valves,  etc.,  should  be  made 
of  brass  or  bronze,  as  tin  or  iron  is  easily  attacked  by 
some  of  the  liquids  in  common  use.  A  good  brass 
spray  pump  ought  to  be  good  for  a  number  of  sea- 
sons, and  a  good  grade  of  hose  for  two  or  three, 
though  some  prefer  to  get  a  cheaper  quality  of  the 
latter  and  then  renew  every  year.  This  may  be  a 
little  dangerous,  because  the  hose  that  is  cheap  enough 
to  throw  away  so  quickly  is  apt  to  be  so  cheap  that 
it  is  not  of  uniform  quality.  There  is  liable  to  be  a 
weak  spot  in  it — and  an  accident. 

514.  Results  of  Spraying. — The  beneficial  results  of 
intelligent  spraying  are  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  136. 
A  peach  yield  from  sprayed  trees  consisting  of  a  trifle 
over  nine  baskets  is  shown,  and  of  these  only  about 
2  per  cent,  of  the  fruit  was  unsound.  As  a  general 
rule,  spraying  will  result  in  saving  over  90  per  cent, 
of  the  fruit  yield,  providing  proper  solutions  are  used 
and  applied  in  a  careful  manner. 

515.  When  Trees  Are  Not  Sprayed. — A  low  ca- 
pacity spraying  outfit  is  not  desirable  and  a  higher 
initial  investment  to  procure  first-class  material  is 
more  than  justified  by  the  returns.  When  trees  are 
not  properly  sprayed,  it  is  seldom  that  50  per  cent,  of 
the  fruit  yield  is  marketable  if  the  parasites  are  at  all 
active.  If  overlooked,  the  fruit  grower  will  be  ex- 
ceptionally lucky  if  he  saves  25  per  cent,  of  the  crop. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
IRRIGATION. 

516.  Why  Needed. — "Irrigation  is  essential  to  all 
parts  of  the  country  where  continuous  and  heavy 
cropping  is  expected.  The  farm  which  is  always  sup- 
plied with  sufficient  moisture  will  yield  20%  to  50% 
more  than  another  in  the  same  region  without  a  reg- 
ular water  supply.  This  has  proved  to  be  true  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  where  averages  have 
been  kept  for  series  of  five  years."  The  above  state- 
ment, made  by  an  agricultural  expert  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  in  effect  sums  up  a  number  of  good  reasons 
in  two  words — better  crops. 

517.  Where. — In  the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions  ir- 
rigation is,  of  course,  a  necessity.  It  has  already  re- 
claimed for  cultivation  tens  of  thousands  of  acres 
which  were  previously  considered  worthless  and  which 
would  again  become  worthless  if  left  to  depend  upon 
natural  rainfall. 

In  regions  of  normal  rainfall  it  is  hardly  less  valu- 
able because,  although  the  full  required  amount  of 
water  may  reach  each  acre  of  ground  from  natural 
sources  during  the  year,  much  of  the  rain  falls  at  a 
season  when  it  does  no  good  because  it  is  not  needed. 
Water  applied  by  artificial  means  comes  at  the  time 
when  it  does  the  most  good  because  it  is  most  needed, 
and  considerably  less  water  in  amount  may  equal  in 
efficiency  or  even  surpass  several  times  that  which 
comes  in  torrents  at  irregular  intervals.     < 

399 


400         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

518.  When. — Everyone  knows  that  crops  are  dam- 
aged and  often  ruined  by  continued  drought.  Not 
everyone  stops  to  consider  that  even  a  short  period 
of  extreme  thirst  injures  the  vitahty  and  quahty  of 
the  plant  as  certainly  as  it  does  of  a  suffering  animal. 
The  quality  of  growing  vegetables  is  greatly  improved 
if  plenty  of  moisture  is  always  available  to  their 
roots  through  the  entire  growling  season.  To  deprive 
them  of  this  even  for  a  short  time  is  certain  to  give 
both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  crop  produced  a 
decided  setback. 

519.  Where  Drought  Has  No  Terrors. — Drought 
has    no    terrors   for   the    man   who   has   a    really    effi- 


FiG.  137. — Drought  Has  No  Terrors  Where  Power  Driven  Pump- 
ing Outfits  Are  Used. 

cient  irrigation  system  in  a  country  wdiere  there  is 
little  rain ;  in  fact,  he  finds  it  rather  an  advantage,  as 
the  rainfall  does  not  then  interrupt  his  work  and  he 
can  at  all  times  regulate  the  watering  of  his  crops  to 
his  own  convenience  without  subjecting  them  to  ex- 
cessive moisture  or  violent  downpours.  ^Nlany  of  the 
fungus  germs,  too,  which  are  found  in  the  air  and 
carried  into  the  ground  or  upon  the  plants  by  the 
rain,  are  avoided  by  the  system  of  root  irrigation,  the 
water  for  which  is  pumped  from  deep  wells. 

520.     Certain   Drawbacks. — The   expense  and  addi- 
tional w^ork  of  having  to  supply  the  water  ourselves 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


401 


are  always  the  greatest  objections  to  it.  Then,  when 
the  supply  is  pumped  from  the  rocks  it  is  pure  and 
does  not  carry  the  loads  of  silt  always  found  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  surface  water  and  which, 
however  objectionable  it  may  be  for  drinking  pur- 
poses, has  a  distinct  fertilizing  value  to  the  growing 
plant.  There  are  some  other  objections.  These,  too, 
are  specially  mentioned,  because  they  are  among  the 
most  important  and  because  the  gasoline  engine  has 
in  a  great  measure  done  away  with  both. 


Fig. 


138.— What  a   Good  Irrigat 
ing  Plant  Contains. 


521.     What  a  Good  Irrigation  Plant  Contains. — The 

chief  essentials  of  a  good  water  supply  are:  ist, 
that  it  be  economical ;  2nd,  reliable ;  3rd,  easily  oper- 
ated ;  and  4th,  that  it  must  not  require  too  much  at- 


402         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

tention.  Natural  rainfall  always  fails  in  relation  to 
the  second  and  third  essential  and  frequently,  after 
pouring  torrents  have  undone  much  of  our  careful 
work,  seem  to  be  deficient  with  regard  to  the  last. 
The  good  irrigating  plant  must  be  economically  op- 
erated, as  the  gasoline  engine  outfit  is.  It  must  be 
available  whenever  needed ;  must  require  very  little 
attention  and  be  so  easily  operated  that  one  man 
can  run  the  engine  of  a  fair  sized  plant  and  have 
time  to  take  care  of  the  water  after  it  is  pumped. 
With  a  good  gasoline  engine  he  can  do  this,  if  the 
trenches  are  prepared  in  advance ;  can  fill  the  oil  ciips, 
start  the  engine,  and  remain  at  work  out  in  the  field 
until  the  cups  need  refilling;  four  or  five  hours,  if 
large  enough  cups  are  put  on  the  engine.  The  cost 
of  irrigating  should  be  kept  within  $2.00  per  acre  for 
the  season  under  ordinary  conditions,  and  the  supply 
can  always  be  depended  upon  at  the  time  and  place 
it  is  desired.  Root  irrigation  has  the  advantage  that 
it  can  be  applied  at  any  convenient  hour  of  the  day, 
whether  the  sun  is  shining  or  not,  while  sprinkling 
from  above  is  likely  to  do  injury  unless  done  after 
night  or  in  cloudy  weather. 

522.  Quantity  of  Water  Required. — -Corn,  oats  and 
wheat  require  from  350  to  400  tons  of  water  per  acre 
to  bring  them  to  maturity,  but  much  of  the  water  ac- 
tually applied  escapes,  so  that  several  times  this 
amount  must  reach  the  ground  in  which  they  grow, 
if  they  are  properly  watered.  One  inch  of  water  per 
acre  weighs  something  like  112  tons  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  on  an  average  it  requires  six  acre  inches 
to  thoroughly  irrigate  the  ground ;  that  is,  if  none  of 
the  water  soaked  in  or  ran  off,  each  acre  would  be 
covered  with  a  sheet  of  water  six  inches  deep.  Two 
or  three  such   irrigations  as  this  per  season  will   be 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  F. 


\RM 


403 


P^ 


404  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

needed,  or  a  total  of  16  to  18  inches.  Making  due 
allowance  for  the  waste  from  evaporation,  it  requires 
a  little  less  than  28,400  gallons  to  irrigate  one  acre  of 
ground  one  inch  deep,  and  an  acre-foot  requires  about 
325,900  gallons. 

523.  The  Cost. — A  general  rule  applied  in  many 
places  is  5c.  per  acre  for  the  season  for  each  foot  of 
lift.  This  requires  a  good  engine  and  a  good  pump, 
neither  of  which  will  do  the  work  without  the  other. 
It  includes  all  operating  expenses  and  supposes  that 
the  plant  is  in  good  working  order  and  that  the  at- 
tendant knows  his  business.  Bad  management  or  un- 
usual conditions  may  increase  this  cost  a  little  and 
there  are  ways  in  which  it  can  often  be  reduced.  For 
instance,  if  there  is  a  natural  basin  at  hand  or  if  one 
can  be  made  by  erecting  a  dam  and  holding  back 
some  of  the  natural  waters  that  fall  in  too  great  quan- 
tity or  at  times  when  they  are  not  needed,  the  amount 
of  water  to  be  pumped  from  a  deep  well  might  be 
decreased  by  drawing  on  the  supply  in  the  pond.  For 
many  reasons  a  good  storage  basin  is  quite  a  con- 
venience. 

524.  Engine  Required. — A  good  pumping  plant 
once  installed  frees  from  all  worry  about  moisture  as 
no  other  system  will ;  a  poor  one  is  itself  a  source  of 
constant  worry.  Of  course,  the  engine  is  the  heart 
of  the  plant.  Too  small  an  engine  means  too  low  a 
speed  for  running  a  centrifugal  pump  most  econom- 
ically. On  the  other  hand,  too  large  an  engine  for 
the  pump,  unless  so  located  that  other  work  can  be 
done  with  it  at  the  same  time,  is  not  utilizing  its  own 
efficiency  to  the  best  advantage.  The  pump  and  the 
engine  should  be  figured  to  balance  each  other  very 
closely.  A  10  to  15  H.  P.  engine  will  run  a  No.  4  to 
6  centrifugal  pump  with  a  lift  of  15   to  25  feet   and 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  405 

deliver  around  2  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  A 
cubic  foot  of  water  per  second  equals  about  450  gal- 
lons per  minute  and  600  gallons  per  minute  will  cover 
1.3  acres  one  inch  deep  per  hour,  or  13.2  acres  per 
working  day  of  10  hours.  If  the  plant  was  run  the 
whole  24  hours  the  amount  covered  would  be  31.8  acres 
per  day.  Five  and  three-tenths  acres  per  24-hour  day 
could  be  given  the  full  six  inches  of  water  required 
for  thorough  irrigation  and  a  plant  of  this  size  in  con- 
tinual operation  might  be  able  to  supply  the  water 
requirements  of  a  fifty-acre  farm  each  ten  days  with- 
out rainfall  if  run  continuously.  A  great  deal,  how- 
ever, depends  upon  the  lift  required  and  the  efficiency 
of  the  pump  as  well  as  on  the  crop  and  season.  Under 
certain  conditions  an  engine  of  this  size  has  been 
found  ample  for  irrigating  200  acres  with  a  20-foot 
lift. 


Fig.  140. — Centrifugal  Pump  Directly  Coupled  to  Gasoline  Motor. 

525.     The    Centrifugal    Pump. — For    raising    large 
quantities   a   short   distance    the   centrifugal   pump   is 


4o6 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


without  a  rival  and  is  almost  entirely  used  for  pur- 
poses of  irrigation  and  drainage.  As  they  are  valve- 
less  they  are  not  likely  to  clog  and  are  for  that  rea- 
son adapted  to  pumping  muddy  water  which  an  ordi- 
nary valve  pump  would  only  handle  under  continu- 
ous protest,  if  at  all,  even  such  solid   substances  as 


Fig.  141. — Small  Gasoline  Power  Plant  Operating  Two  Diaphragm 

Pumps. 

large  pebbles,  walnuts,  leaves,  etc.,  not  troubling  the 
centrifugal  pump  seriously.  The  water  also  comes 
from  them  in  a  steady  flow,  instead  of  impulses  as 
with  valve  pumps.  Centrifugal  pumps  have  been  con- 
structed that  would  deliver  several  hundred  tons  of 
water  per  minute. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         407 

526.  Their  Limitations. — Formerly  it  was  believed 
that  the  centrifugal  pump  was  only  capable  of  lift- 
ing water  a  few  feet  and  even  to-day  many  people 
consider  40  to  50  feet  the  extreme  limit  of  their  work- 
ing possibility.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  single  stage 
volute  centrifugal  has  been  operated  on  a  lift  up  to 
500  feet,  but  this  requires  so  great  a  speed  and  such 
heavy  power  that  a  plant  of  this  sort  is  too  expen- 
sive for  the  irrigation  of  ordinary  crops,  the  working 
parts  of  the  pump  being  made  of  a  special  bronze  and 
very  carefully  adjusted.  Single  stage  pumps  of  this 
kind  can  be  economically  and  safely  used  though  up  to 
a  100-foot  lift  and,  by  compounding  the  stages,  this 
lift  can  be  very  much  increased. 

527.  Different  Types. — Centrifugal  pumps  may 
be  of  the  vertical  or  horizontal  form,  the  latter  being 
sometimes  called  the  top-lift  and  depending  upon  suc- 
tion. They  are  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the  well  and 
ought  not  to  be  more  than  20  feet  above  the  source 
of  supply.  As  they  are  the  easiest  to  install  and  re- 
pair they  are  in  most  common  use.  They  often  need 
priming,  though,  which  the  submerged  does  not.  In 
some  comparatively  shallow  wells,  too,  they  would  be 
useless  because  of  the  shifting  of  the  water  level,  the 
water  perhaps  dropping  20  or  30  feet  or  even  more 
after  pumping  begins  before  the  level  is  reached  at 
which  it  remains  constant.  In  such  a  well  a  pump  of 
this  sort  if  set  at  the  top  would  be  beyond  suction 
distance  and  if  lowered  to  suction  distance  of  the 
working  level  would  be  submerged  when  pumping  was 
suspended. 

The  vertical  type  of  pump  will  work  submerged  and 
may  be  lowered  into  wells  of  sufficient  diameter, 
where,  if  properly  installed,  they  do  excellent  work. 
They   are   specially   intended   for   wells   too   deep   for 


4o8         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  top  lift  pump  and  will  be  found  most  efficient  if 
the  suction  lift  is  not  greater  than  from  12  to  20  feet. 

Centrifugal  pumps  are  very  sensitive  to  speed  in- 
fluences, their  output  being  determined  by  the  height 
of  the  raise  and  the  speed  at  which  they  are  run. 
A  speed  indicator  should  be  used  and,  once  the  most 
efficient  speed  for  a  certain  pump  and  well  is  de- 
termined, it  should  never  be  allowed  to  drop  below 
that  speed.  It  may  for  a  short  time  go  higher,  but 
at  a  waste  of  energy  and  relative  economy. 

Centrifugal  pumps  are  sometimes  sold  at  a  price 
too  low  for  good  internal  finish.  The  blades  and  sur- 
faces are  left  rough  and  without  machining.  They 
will  work  but,  on  account  of  the  extra  friction  retard- 
ing the  water,  w^ill  be  very  greatly  reduced  in  effi- 
ciency ;  in  other  words,  by  buying  such  a  pump  the 
continuous  or  operating  cost  is  greatly  increased  in 
order  that  a  few  dollars  may  be  saved  in  the  instal- 
lation cost.  The  purchase  of  cheap  unfinished  pumps 
is  perhaps  the  most  frequent  and  worst  trouble  against 
which  the  centrifugal  pump  has  to  contend.  Their 
other  chief  troubles  are  poor  priming,  leaks  in  the 
suction  connections,  and  being  run  at  too  low  a  speed, 
either  because  of  wrong  calculations  or  because  the 
pulleys  on  both  pump  and  engine  are  too  small  and 
too  much  power  is  wasted  in  belt  slippage. 

528.  Garden  and  Small  Farm  Irrigation. — Where 
the  lift  is  greater  than  50  feet  the  subject  of  general 
irrigation  as  a  regular  dependence  becomes  somewhat 
questionable.  For  special  crops,  however,  and  as  an 
occasional  resort  much  greater  lifts  are  entirely  feas- 
ible ;  indeed,  after  a  crop  has  been  started  and  per- 
haps brought  well  toward  maturity  the  most  expen- 
sive irrigation  one  can  imagine  is  that  which  might 
have  insured  a  fine  harvest,  but  did  not,  because  it 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  409 

was  not  done.  It  is  very  seldom  that  the  rainfall  is 
heavy  enough  at  the  right  time  to  insure  a  full  100% 
crop  without  damaging  it.  Crops  are  every  year  re- 
duced from  20%  to  80%  in  some  places  by  dry  weather 
and  thousands  of  dollars  are  annually  wasted  in  the 
regions  which  do  not  depend  upon  irrigation,  that 
might  be  saved  by  a  little  timely  work  in  an  ama- 
teur way.     Even  the  difference  between  a  good  and 


Fig.   142. — Garden  Irrigation  by  Flowing  Method. 

a  dried  up  garden  may  almost  mean  a  living,  during 
four  or  five  months  of  the  year  at  least,  to  the  aver- 
age farmer. 

529.  For  Deep  Well  Pumping. — Driven  or  drilled 
wells,  if  deep  or  of  small  diameter,  may  be  more  ad- 
vantageously pumped  with  some  form  of  valve  pump, 
although  the  cost,  efficiency  considered,  is  much 
greater.  Power  pumps  for  this  are  of  two  general 
classes,  the  horizontal  and  vertical.  The  first  of  these 
is  for  conditions  not  unlike  those  best  adapted  to  the 
centrifugal  pump,  for  shallow  wells,  cisterns,  and 
springs. 

The  deep  well  power  pumps  sometimes  require  a 
long  stroke  and  cylinder  of  small  diameter.  They 
consist  of  a  rigid  frame  carrying  the  shaft  for  the 
engine  pulley,  upon  which  are  keyed  small  pinions 
that    mesh   with    large    gear   wheels   near   the    rim    of 


410 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


which  a  crank-pin  projects.  To  these  are  attached 
the  connecting  rods,  working  on  each  side  of  the  pump 
frame  and  carrying  at  their  other  end  the  cross  head, 
which  travels  upon  or  between  vertical  guides  and  at 
its  center  operates  the  plunger  rod.  This  is  the  gen- 
eral type.     Special  features  refer  to  discharge  pipe  ar- 


FiG.  143. — Power  Pumping  Outfit 
for  Deep  Well. 


ranofement,  air  chamber,  valve  location  and  distribut- 
ing  arrangements.  These  pumps  are  often  run  in 
connection  with  artesian  well  cylinders  which  may 
be  lowered  any  depth  into  the  well  and  operated  near 
its  bottom  as  suction  pumps  below  and  lift  pumps 
above  the  plunger.     Connection  is  made  between  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


411 


plunger  and  the  crosshead  by  means  of  wooden  rods, 
coupled  together  to  the  required  length.  Air  chambers 
are  used  at  the  distributing  tees  where  the  water  is 
forced  any  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  well  or  into 
elevated  or  pneumatic  tanks.  For  the  latter,  they  may 
be  so  arranged  that  the  air  will  be  compressed  for 
use  in  the  tank  by  the  action  of  the  pump  itself  to  the 


Fig.  144. — Deming  Horizontal  Power  Pump. 


desired  amount  and  then  cut  out  at  will,  without  in- 
terfering with  the  working  of  the  pump. 

The  horizontal  pump  is  also  intended  for  forcing 
water  into  tanks  and  may  be  equipped  with  the  same 
air  condenser.  The  pulley  shaft  is  generally  carried 
on  the  cylinder  head ;  connecting  rods  working  from 
each  end  of  this  along  each  side  of  the  pump  body  to 
a  guided  crosshead  which  works  the  piston  in  the 
cylinder.  This  avoids  all  twisting  thrust  and  not  only 
reduces  strain  but  also  friction.     Valve  chambers  at 


412 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


some  convenient  point  contain  the  suction  and  dis- 
charge valves.  Access  for  cleaning  and  repairing  the 
valves  is  usually  through  hand  holes  for  that  purpose, 
so  the  cylinder  head  need  not  be  disturbed.  A  good 
pump  of  this  type  is  provided  with  tight  and  loose 
pulleys  and  should  be  operated  at  a  speed  of  about  40 


Fig.   145. — Air  Cooled  Engine  and  Pump  Mounted  on  Common 

Base. 


strokes  per  minute.  These  belted  power  pumps, 
though  long  known,  as  now  developed  are  a  direct 
result  of  the  gasoline  engine. 

530.  Distributing  the  Water. — Instead  of  the  irri- 
gation ditches  and  expensive  provisions  necessary  in 
the  west  for  extended  irrigating,  the  truck  patch  and 
family  garden  may  be  watered  without  great  outlay. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  I'\\rm  413 

Usually  it  is  best  to  first  pump  the  water,  or  a  por- 
tion of  it,  into  a  tank  of  moderate  elevation.  It  is 
rather  more  convenient  to  distribute  from  a  tank  than 
direct  from  the  pump  and  water  pumped  from  a  great 
depth  is  apt  to  be  too  cold.  By  standing  exposed  to 
the  sun  the  temperature  is  more  suitable.  With  a 
garden  hose,  a  spray  nozzle  and  a  moderate  pressure 
the  water  may  be  applied  from  above.  This  is  nec- 
essary in  the  case  of  grass  and  similar  close-growing 
plants,  but  for  garden  crops  and  plants  in  rows  root 


Fig.  146. — Water  Distribution  by  Seepage  Method. 

irrigation  is  the  best.  This  is  done  by  running  the 
water  into  small  trenches  on  each  side  of  the  row  of 
growing  plants.  The  trench  made  by  a  cultivator  with 
shovels  set  for  hilling  up  is  just  the  thing,  particu- 
larly if  the  garden  is  cultivated  with  a  wheel  hoe  and 
the  rows  close  together;  say  a  foot  apart.  Run  the 
hoe  exactly  as  though  hilling  up,  being  careful  not 
to  cut  through  the  headlands  at  the  ends ;  then  across 
the  highest  end  of  the  garden  cut  a  similar  furrow 
somewhat   larger  than  the  others,  by   expanding  the 


414 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


wings  of  the  hoe  a  little  and  deepening  by  several 
cuttings.  Connect  the  tank  or  the  pump  with  this 
main  ditch  and  then  see  that  it  is  opened  to  each  of 
the  irrigating  trenches  cut  between  the  rows.  The 
discharge  pipe  from  the  tank  should  end  in  a  hori- 
zontal wooden  box  with  holes  in  the  side  or  one  end 
removed,  to  avoid  the  wash  that  would  accompany 
the  continued  discharge  of  water  under  pressure  upon 
loose  dirt. 

The  trenches  should  all  be  prepared  before  the  water 


Fig.  147. — Water  Distribution  by  Flooding  Method. 

Is  turned  on.  Then  oil  up  and  start  the  engine,  con- 
nect with  the  tank,  open  the  escape  from  the  tank 
into  the  head  ditch  and  the  rest  of  the  job,  aside  from 
an  occasional  supervision,  may  be  turned  over  to  the 
engine.  Without  interfering  with  the  regular  field 
work,  it  is  possible  to  start  up  the  engine  just  before 
supper,  after  the  night  chores  are  done,  and  then  just 
before  bedtime  go  out  and  shut  down  the  engine,  the 
work  completed  and  a  fine  crop  of  vegetables  or  ber- 
ries saved.    In  time  of  a  severe  droug-ht  it  is  not  much 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  415 

of  a  farm  garden  that  will  not  produce  more  than  a 
small  gasoline  engine  costs  in  return  for  occasional 
treatment  of  this  kind. 

531.  Kinks  and  Cautions. — Where  the  spraying 
method  of  watering  is  used  do  not  apply  the  water 
until  after  sunset  or  else  before  sunrise  or  on  a  cloudy 
day;  never  when  the  sun  is  shining. 

If  a  full  stream  of  water  fails  to  come  from  the 
pump  and  the  supply  in  the  well  is  ample  try  run- 
ning a  little  faster.  If  that  does  not  work  and  the 
pump  seems  to  be  in  good  condition  it  is  probable 
that  the  strainer  is   deficient  in  waterway. 

It  pays  to  keep  the  connections  between  tank  and 
pump  tight  and  free  from  leakage.  The  greatest 
troubles  and  expenses  come  from  neglected  minor  de- 
tails. This  is  specially  true  in  relation  to  the  engine 
itself. 

Trouble  always  means  expense.  To  cut  expenses 
down  keep  things  in  order. 

A  breakdown  in  dry  weather  may  mean  ruin  to  the 
crop  and  loss  of  all  work  previously  put  upon  it. 

Other  things  being  nearly  equal,  select  that  imple- 
ment, machine  or  system  that  is  likely  to  give  the 
least  trouble  afterwards. 

Produce  from  a  well  watered  garden  will  be  fresh 
and  marketable  in  spite  of  drought. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 
THE    WOMAN'S  STORY. 

532.  What  Machinery  Has  Done  for  Some  Farm 
Women. — From  perpetual  motion  to  hours  of  rea- 
sonable industrial  requirements  the  daily  working 
period  of  the  modern  farmer  has  been  reduced  by 
farm  machinery.  In  some  instances  the  wife  has 
shared  in  this  emancipation ;  in  a  good  many  others 
the  only  direct  benefit  she  has  received  from  the  me- 
chanical helps  she  has  helped  to  pay  for  is  a  partial 
or  complete  escape  from  having  to  go  out  in  the  field 
and  help  the  men  with  their  work  after  having  done 
her  own.  Men  no  longer  care  to  cradle  and  rake  and 
bind  their  grain  by  hand.  Still  less  would  they  favor 
a  hand-power  threshing  machine  or  fodder  shredder. 
They  sometimes  forget  that  a  w^asherful  of  clothes 
requires  some  form  of  motive  power  even  if  the  washer 
itself  is  of  the  latest  design.  Nearly  all  washing  ma- 
chines are  rated  by  machine  men  to  require  from  a 
^  to  I  H.  P.  engine  and  the  average  man  is  expected 
to  be  capable  of  producing  1/7  H.  P.  How  about 
the  woman  who  has  to  turn  the  w^asher  by  hand? 
The  average  w^ringer  turns  even  harder  than  the  wash- 
ing machine,  and  the  clothes  all  have  to  go  through 
it  three  or  four  times.  Is  it  any  w^onder  if  the  woman 
who  turns  it  sometimes  thinks  longingly  of  that  will- 
ing little  helper,  the  gasoline  engine,  that  would  do 
the  hard  part  of  her  washings  for  her  if  it  had  a 
chance? 

416 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  thf  Farm  417 

533.  The  Farm  Power  Laundry. — No  doubt  the 
average  woman  would  be  so  much  relieved  by  hav- 
ing the  washer  and  wringer  turned  for  her  that  she 
would  be  satisfied  for  weeks  to  come ;  still  it  is  much 
more  economical  to  install  complete  plants,  once  the 
power   is   supplied,   than    to   provide    a   few   separate 


1  ii,     L4S. — The  Woman's  Engine. 

items.     It  will  cost  some  money  but  the  beginning  is 
the  most  expensive  part  of  it. 

The  complete  power  laundry  should  include  a  w^ash- 
ing  machine  and  wringer  mounted  together  and  ar- 
ranged to  operate  at  the  same  time  or  either  one 
alone,  at  the  will  of  the  operator.  There  should  be 
space  on  the  tub  rack  for  one  or  two  rinsing  tubs, 
beside  the  washer  and  the  wringer,  made  to  slide  along 


4i8 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


a  frame  to  operate  over  any  of  these  and  in  either 
direction.  The  clothes  may  then  be  wrung  from  any 
one  tub  to  the  next  one  without  lifting.  The  wringers 
on  some  power  washers  are  thrown  in  and  out  of 
gear  by  a  foot  pedal ;  on  others  with  a  lever.  It  is 
very  important  that,  whichever  method  is  used,  the 
device  should  be  within  easy  reaching  distance  of  the 
operator  at  any  time  so  that  the  accidental  catching 
of  the  clothing  or  a  finger  between  the  revolving  rub- 


FiG,   149. — The   New   Washerwoman   Lightens   a  Former  House- 
hold Burden. 

ber  rolls  may  be  checked  before  any  serious  damage 
is  done.  Unprotected  gear  wheels  about  a  washer 
should  never  be  tolerated,  the  clothing  is  so  easily 
caught  and  wound  in.  A  belt  drive  is  much  safer, 
though  belts  are  rather  prone  to  slip  when  run  near 
soapy  water.  Some  washers  have  enclosed  gear  which 
is  comparatively  safe. 

Washers  are  on  the  market  which  are  guaranteed 
to  handle  the  heaviest  carpets  or  the  most  delicate  lace 
curtains.  This  claim  should  be  made  good  to  a  rea- 
sonable  degree.     There   must   be   no  bearings   where 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


419 


the  oil  required  will  reach  the  clothes.  In  many  of 
the  modern  washers  raising  the  lid  of  the  machine 
throws  it  out  of  gear  and  stops  it  until  the  lid  is  again 
closed.  This  is  much  more  convenient  than  having 
to  shift  a  belt  or  stop  the  engine  whenever  it  is  nec- 
essary to  turn  or  examine  the  clothes.  A  reversible 
drip-board  makes  it  possible  to  wring  the  clothes  from 
one  rinse  tub  to  another;  then  back  again  into  a  new 


WRINGER  ON  „,^,,ro 

,       MOVABlt    FRAME  ^       ^t?rDR.?E 


niNCED 

riATFORM  FOR 
ORAININb  TUK 


Fig.    150. — A  Complete  Washing   Outfit  Adapted   for   Use  With 

Power. 


water ;    or,    one    washing    may    be    going    forward    at 
the  same  time  that  an  earlier  one  is  being  rinsed. 

The  best  washing  machine  in  the  world  is  not  com- 
plete unless  conveniently  placed  faucets  supply  hot 
or  cold  water  at  will  to  any  of  the  tubs.  This  may 
be  arranged  by  a  swinging  faucet  for  each  over  the 
central  tub  but  with  the  swinging  arm  long  enough 
to  reach  over  the  other  tub  or  the  washing  machine  as 
turned.  For  convenience  the  arms  may  be  kept  folded 
back  against  the  wall  when  not  in  use.  Both  tubs  and 
washer  are  drained  from  below  by  means  of  faucets 


420 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


emptying  into  a  sink  or  basin  from  which  the  water 
is  conducted  by  a  pipe.  From  the  time  the  clothes  are 
put  into  the  washer  until  they  are  finished  ready  for 
the  drying  line  they  need  never  be  lifted  excepting 
as   the   ends   are   inserted  between  the   rollers   of  the 


W^^9 


Fig.    151. — No   Lifting   Excepting  to   Fold   for   Wringer. 

wringer  and  the  pieces  straightened  out  as  they  are 
being  run  through.  If  efifectively  arranged,  a  good 
sized  family  washing  can  be  done  in  from  ^  hour  to 
I  hour  with  very  little  drudgery  for  the  operator.  The 
engine  does  all  that,  and  does  not  mind  it  in  the  least, 
but  the  power  washing  outfit  is  no  longer  merely  a 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  421 

concession    to    aching    back    and    muscles;    it    is    an 
economic  necessity  in  the  household  as  surely  as  the 


Fig.   152.— When  Electric  Power  Is  on  Tap  to  Operate  Washer. 

A Washer    Pulley.      B — Wringer    Pulley.      C — Countershaft 

Pulley.  D— Electric  Motor  Pulley.  E — Washer  Driving 
Pulley  on  Countershaft.  F— Hangers.  I — Electric  Motor. 
K— Snap  Switch.      L— Power  Release  Lever. 

binder  is  in  the  harvest  field,  while  the  price  of  two 
5c.  cigars  a  week  for  a  few  years  is  enough  to  pay 
for  the  outfit. 


422  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

534.  Ironing  by  Engine  Power. — This  may  be  done 
by  means  of  the  mangle,  engine  run.  The  smooth  rolls 
of  polished  steel,  operating  much  like  a  wringer,  are 
usually  heated  by  gas,  where  that  is  available,  and 
take  the  place  of  the  hot  flat-iron  admirably,  the  oper- 
ator merely  having  to  fold  and  arrange  the  garments. 
As  the  pressure  between  the  rolls  may  be  regulated 
at  will,  not  even  the  most  liberal  expenditure  of  "el- 
bow grease"  can  be  as  effective  as  this  nerveless  laun- 
dress that  never  tires  and  does  not  have  to  ease  off 
on  the  pressure  because  of  aching  arms.  Where  gas 
is  not  obtainable  some  other  means  of  heating  the 
air  in  the  interior  of  the  rolls,  which  are  hollow,  can 
be  obtained. 

535.  The  Water  System. — A  good  old  proverb 
states  that  water  never  rises  higher  than  its  source. 
The  success  of  any  laundry  is  limited  to  its  conve- 
nient supply  of  water,  but  the  same  engine  that  sup- 
plies the  power  is  specially  adapted  to  supplying  the 
water  also.  Not  even  a  special  kind  of  pump  is  nec- 
essary, though  sometimes  it  is  preferred.  There  are 
pump  jacks  on  sale  that  may  be  hitched  to  any  hand 
pump,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  pump  may  be 
released  and  used  in  the  ordinary  way  in  an  instant. 

536.  The  Storage  System. — With  a  gasoline  engine 
there  is  no  necessity  for  storing  up  enough  water  at 
a  time  to  last  until  the  next  wind  blows ;  the  power 
is  always  available.  For  some  purposes,  though, 
water  under  pressure  is  a  distinct  advantage,  even 
though  it  is  no  more  work  to  start  an  engine  up  than 
to  pump  half  a  pail  of  water. 

537.  Elevated  Tanks. — An  elevated  tank  outside 
is  at  the  mercy  of  the  hot  sun  in  summer  and  of  freez- 
ing troubles  in  the  winter.  If  set  indoors,  there  is 
apt  to  be  more  or  less  drip  and  leakage  to  rot  out  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


423 


timbers  of  the  house  and  cause  dampness,  with  always 
the  possibility  of  a  weakened  hoop,  a  burst  tank  and 
disaster. 

538.  The  Pressure  Tank. — The  water  storage  sys- 
tem under  present  favor  is  the  pressure  tank,  which 
consists  of  an  iron  or  steel  cylinder  holding  anywhere 
from  a  few  to  many  barrels,  and  tapped  for  the  inlet 
pipe  from  the  pump  and  the  discharge  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  water.  A  third  hole,  small  in  size, 
is  usually  made  for  attaching  a  pressure  gage  or  in- 
dicator; or  this  may  be  made  a  branch  of  the  other 


3  Va  PRESSURE 
GAUGE 
ELL 


lyr STREET  ELL 

SPECIAL  PUMP  JACK 

Fig.    153. — A   Complete  Pneumatic  Water   Supply   System   Gives 
Important  City  Convenience  in  Country  Homes. 

pipe  but  must  not  under  any  consideration  be  omitted, 
and  is  far  more  dependable  when  attached  to  its  own 
orifice. 

The  tank,  of  course,  is  full  of  air  at  first  and  the 
air  condenses  as  water  is  forced  in  by  the  pump  until 
it  forms  an  elastic  cushion  in  the  top  of  the  tank  with 
a  pressure  sufficient  to  drive  the  water,  out  through 
the  distributing  pipe,  to  any  part  of  the  house.  Usu- 
ally the  pumping  is  continued  until  the  pressure  gage 
shows  30  pounds.  As  the  air  in  the  tank  would  not 
alone  supply  enough  pressure  to  force  nearly  all  of 
the  water  out,  more  air  is  pumped  in  so  that  when  the 


424         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

gage  shows  30  pounds  pressure  there  may  not  be 
enough  water  to  more  than  half  fill  the  space.  Many 
power  pumps  are  now  made  so  that  air  or  water  or 
both  together  may  be  forced  in  by  the  engine.  Of 
course,  a  much  higher  pressure  may  be  carried  by 
forcing  in  more  air. 

539.  Advantages  Over  Elevated  Tanks. — There  are 
several  advantages  which  a  pressure  tank  has  over  one 
that  is  elevated.  In  place  of  being  set  in  an  exposed 
position,  if  outside,  it  is  usually  buried  under  ground ; 
if  in  the  house,  it  is  in  a  cellar  or  basement  where  any 
accident  would  flood  only  the  one  room  instead  of  the 
whole  house.  Because  of  the  location  of  the  tank  the 
w^ater  is  cooler,  and  because  of  the  air  forced  through 
it  it  is  thoroughly  aerated  and  much  more  palatable 
and  wholesome. 

540.  Making  Use  of  It. — With  a  pressure  or  ele- 
vated tank  installed  and  a  convenient  means  of  filling 
it,  the  water  system  of  the  farm  house  is  merely  a 
question  of  distribution,  and  may  be  made  quite  as 
complete  as  that  of  any  city  house.  Hot  and  cold 
water  can  be  had  with  the  turning  of  a  faucet  in  any 
room  desired,  upstairs  or  down.  The  modern  bath- 
room, for  years  so  impossible  for  the  farmer  to  possess, 
is  one  of  the  most  natural  consequences  of  the  tank. 
With  water  coming  to  the  faucets  above  the  tubs  the 
laundry  becomes  a  complete  plant,  and  of  course  the 
same  method  will  be  used  to  bring  water  into  the 
kitchen  sink.  By  running  up  a  little  extra  pressure  at 
cleaning  time  and  attaching  a  hose,  both  upper  and 
lower  windows  may  be  washed  thoroughly  without  re- 
moving the  sash  or  risking  a  broken  neck.  One  of  the 
beauties  of  this  system,  an  advantage  over  that  in  the 
city  home,  is  the  control  the  individual  has  of  the  pres- 
sure.    On  special  occasions  it  may  be  run  up  to  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  425 

point  which  would  under  ordinary  circumstances  be 
unnecessary  and  inconvenient.  In  the  country  home, 
too,  the  water  may  be  pure  ;  there  is  no  excuse  for  its 
being  otherwise,  but  the  city  man  has  to  drink  what- 
ever is  furnished  him  and  must  pay  for  its  production 
tmder  the  management  of  somebody  else. 

Mopping,  one  of  the  dreaded  tasks  of  the  farm 
housewife,  becomes,  with  the  pressure  tank,  a  matter 
of  very  little  concern.  A  few  turns  of  the  engine  will 
drive  the  pressure  to  the  point  where  the  hose  will 
easily  take  the  place  of  the  scrub  brush.  There  need 
be  no  more  wringing  out  of  dirty  rags  with  bare  hands, 
and  no  corners  are  too  inaccessible  for  the  hose  to 
reach  without  any  stooping  or  hard  work. 

541.  Dish-washing. — In  the  same  way,  but  with  a 
smaller  pipe  and  less  pressure,  much  of  the  dish-wash- 
ing can  be  done  without  wetting  the  hands.  The 
dishes  placed  in  the  sink  and  soaped  as  needed,  hot 
or  cold  water,  or  a  combination  of  the  two,  may  be 
turned  upon  them  with  sufficient  force  to  do  the  wash- 
ing more  effectually  than  any  hand  work  and  in  less 
than  half  the  time.  Dishes  not  injured  by  heat  may 
be  washed  in  water  much  hotter  than  the  hand  will 
bear;  then  the  pressure  under  which  it  is  applied  is 
even  more  of  an  advantage. 

Mechanical  dish-washers  now  on  the  market  are 
quite  a  little  in  use  in  hotels,  and  are  frequently  run 
by  engine  power.  They  are  a  convenience.  Without 
them,  though,  but  with  this  easily  regulated  pressure 
at  command,  the  housewife  on  the  farm  has  quite  as 
efficient  a  dish-washer  as  the  city  housewife  and  one 
that  will  not  be  nearly  as  destructive  to  the  dishes  as 
the  average  hired  girl. 

542.  Outside  the  House. — Lawn  sprinkling,  while 
not  eactly  a  part  of  woman's  work,  falls  to  her  fre- 


426         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

quently;  that  is,  she  assumes  it  rather  than  see  it  go 
undone.  To  the  flower  beds  and  pet  shrubs  she  is  ac- 
customed to  carry  a  good  many  pails  of  water  in 
the  course  of  a  season,  but  the  engine 'could  do  it  for 
her  through  the  pneumatic  tank  a  great  deal  easier 
than  she  can  and  much  quicker,  for  he  makes  no  re- 
turn trips  empty  handed.  Automatic  sprinklers,  too, 
may  be  introduced ;  such  details  every  one,  once  the 
means  is  at  hand,  will  work  out  for  themselves,  and 
enjoy  the  fun  of  doing  it.  As  a  general  thing  there  are 
some  fruit  trees  near  the  farm  house  if  there  are  any 
on  the  farm.  If  the  women  folks  have  an  engine  and 
pressure  tank  to  carry  water  for  them  it  will  soon  be 
noticed  that  the  trees  around  the  house  are  pretty 
certain  to  bear  some  fruit  whether  those  in  the  orchard 
do  or  not.  EverA^thing  that  has  life  carries  within  it  a 
large  percentage  of  w^ater,  and  a  good  many  small  boys 
and  women  folks  have  had  reason  to  conclude  that 
life  itself  was  most  of  it  made  up  of  carr3ang  water 
for  the  rest  of  creation. 

543.  The  Vacuum  Cleaner. — With  provisions  for 
convenient  water  cleaning  it  is  time  to  consider  that 
which  is  best  done  dry.  Whenever  a  really  new  ma- 
chine comes  out  one  may  judge  a  good  deal  as  to  its 
value  by  the  number  of  cheap  imitations  which  are 
thrown  upon  the  market.  The  vacuum  cleaner  is  one 
of  those  machines  mentioned  earlier  in  this  bool^ 
which  does  not  reach  its  full  efficiency  until  some  more 
efficient  power  than  is  ordinarily  available  is  applied. 
Hand  power  is  not  enough,  though  hundreds  of  hand- 
power  machines  are  in  daily  use  and  are  pronounced  a 
success;  still  they  lack  in  complete  efficiency.  It  is 
the  extra  pound  of  energy  which  makes  their  success 
absolute.    The  gasoline  engine  can  supply  that. 

544.  Cleaning     House. — House-cleaning     time     is 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


427 


largely  dreaded  because  of  the  general  tearing  up  con- 
sidered necessary.  With  the  vacuum  cleaner  this  is 
done  away  with,  providing  the  cleaner  has  its  full  ef- 
ficiency back  of  it.  With  the  stronger  machine  and 
more  complete  vacuum  available  with  engine  power, 
the  carpets  may  remain  upon  the  floor  and  be  thor- 


FiG.    154. — A    Portable    Vacuum    Cleaner    Operated    by    Cushman 
Farm  Motor. 


oughly  cleaned  every  day  instead  of  twice  a  year.  Not 
even  moths  can  resist  the  suction  of  a  vacuum  cleaner 
that  is  working  as  it  should.  With  a  clean  carpet  al- 
ways, there  is  less  dust  to  settle  on  the  furniture,, 
although  the  vacuum  cleaner  is  supplied  with  a  special 
nozzle  for  cleaning  it.  Window  curtains  and  the  most 
delicate  draperies  are  cleaned  where  they  hang.  Even 
the  wall  paper  may  be  brightened  by  this  method  of 


428         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

renovation  as  well  as  by  the  comparative  absence  of 
dust.  Clothing  may  be  brushed  out  and  cleaned  after 
a  muddy  ride  and  the  beauty  of  it  all  is  that  the  dirt 
is  really  removed  instead  of  being  chased  from  place  to 
place,  ^^^hen  one  stops  to  consider  the  work  being 
done  by  these  comparatively  new  assistants  there 
seems  to  be  some  little  foundation  for  the  advertised 
claim  of  one  establishment:  "We  clean  everything 
but  the  baby  and  leave  everything  but  the  dirt." 

At  the  barn  more  than  one  progressive  dairyman  is 
now  currying  the  cows  with  a  vacuum  cleaner  and  in 
that  way,  just  before  milking,  ridding  their  coats  of 
all  dust  and  loose  hairs  without  loading  the  air  w^ith 
dust  that  will  settle  into  the  pails  while  the  milking  is 
being  done.  Power  for  this  purpose  is  supplied  by 
the  same  engine  that  runs  the  milking  machine  in  the 
same  stables. 

545.  Milking  Machines.— While  the  milking  ma- 
chine seems  at  first  thought  to  belong  to  the  stable 
rather  than  the  kitchen,  it  is  a  part,  and  an  important 
one,  of  the  dairy,  over  which  the  woman  usually  pre- 
sides. Milking  machines  of  the  past  have  some  of 
them  been  unsanitary,  inefficient,  expensive  and  posi- 
tively harmful.  Any  mechanical  device  which  is  ob- 
jectionable to  the  cow  is  sure  to  decrease  the  milk 
flow.  The  successful  machine  must  be  easily  cleaned, 
sanitary,  strong,  time-saving,  economical,  and  not  in- 
jurious. It  must  also  reduce  the  amount  of  help 
needed  or  else  increase  the  possibilities  of  the  help 
employed  in  number  of  cows  handled. 

The  milking  machine  of  to-day  is  not  more  difficult 
to  clean  than  the  average  cream  separator.  Some  spe- 
cial devices  are  needed  with  it;  so  are  they  with  the 
separator.  It  is  more  sanitary  than  hand  milking,  as 
the  work   is   all   done  under  cover.     The  milk  at   no 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


429 


time  comes  in  contact  with  the  dust  or  odors  of  the 
stables  from  the  time  it  is  drawn  until  it  is  poured  into 
the  separator  tank.  There  is  nothing  about  it  that 
cannot  be  made  strong;  that  is  merely  a  matter  of 
manufacturing  economics.  It  milks  a  cow  more 
quickly  than  a  hand  milker  can,  and  one  man  can  be 
milking  two  or  even  four  cows  at  a  time.  It  is  eco- 
nomical in  permitting  a   reduction  in   the   number  of 


Fig.   155. — Creating  the  Vacuum  for  Milking  by  Gasoline  Power. 


men  employed  or  of  an  increased  number  of  cows  that 
the  present  force  can  manage.  That  it  is  not  injurious 
to  the  cows  has  been  indicated  from  the  fact  that  they 
no  longer  object  to  it,  some  of  thetn  standing  more 
quietly  than  for  hand  milking  and  giving  better  re- 
sults. It  also  frees  the  owner  from  absolute  depend- 
ence upon  hired  help.  Formerly  he  either  had  to  keep 
a  number  of  men  or  else  reduce  his  herd  to  a  point 
where  it  could  not  be  run  the  most  economically,  and 


430 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


if  he   chose  the  former  course  he  was  absolutely  at 
the  mercy  of  his  men. 

While  several  different  machines  are  now  in  use  a 
description  of  one  will  answer  for  all.  The  machine 
consists  of  a  heavy  covered  tin  pail  with  a  cone-shaped 
top,  the  disc-like  lid  "of  which  contains  the  vacuum 
motor  operating  on  the  cows.  One  rubber  tube  con- 
nects this  with  a  pipe  overhead  from  which  the  air  is 
exhausted  by  the  engine.  When  the  stopcock  is 
opened  between  pail  and  pipe  the  air  in  the  pail  is  dis- 


156. 


-Milking  Cows  by  Vacuum   Process  Cleanly,   Sanitary 
and  Not  Injurious  to  Animals. 


tributed  through  the  vacuum  and  a  suction  set  up. 
The  pressure  carried  is  about  ^  an  atmosphere  or  7I/2 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Valves  prevent  the  milk  from 
being  drawn  back  into  the  pipe  and  give  continued 
suction  for  10  to  15  seconds,  then  pressure,  about  60 
pulsations  per  minute,  is  applied  by  alternating  the 
suction  with  the  pressure  of  an  air  compressor.  One 
pail  or  machine  is  set  between  two  cows.    A  vacuum 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  431 

reservoir  is  connected  with  the  pump  to  prevent  too 
high  a  vacuum.  Two  rubber  tubes,  each  with  a  glass 
section  inserted  for  inspecting  the  flow,  lead  from  the 
top  of  the  can  to  the  cows  and  terminate  in  four  caps 
which  are  adjustable  as  to  size.  The  operator  should 
watch  closely  that  all  of  these  are  working,  and,  as 
soon  as  milk  ceases  to  flow  through  glass  sections, 
should  shut  ©fif  the  suction.  One  machine  is  usually 
allowed  for  every  ten  or  twelve  cows.  While  the  ma- 
chine should  have  intelligent  attendance,  there  is  noth- 
ing complicated  about  it,  and  trouble  comes  to  it 
through  misuse  rather  than  from  any  fault  of  the  ma- 
chine. No  doubt  milking  machines,  like  all  other  im- 
portant inventions,  will  be  greatly  improved  upon 
after  they  have  come  into  more  general  use,  but  in 
their  present  stage  they  are  neither  less  efficient  nor 
more  objectionable  than  many  another  farm  utensil 
that  is  regarded  as  a  success. 

546.  The  Cream  Separator. — It  is  possible  to  so 
contrive  the  stable  arrangement  that  the  milk,  instead 
of  falling  into  a  pail,  will  be  drawn  along  through  a 
tube,  from  the  milking  machine,  directly  into  the  tank 
of  the  separator,  which  may  itself  be  kept  covered.  At 
least  one  separator  now  on  the  market  contains  a  gaso- 
line motor  in  its  own  base  and  may  be  started  up  as 
soon  as  the  milking  begins  and  kept  running  con- 
tinually until  the  work  is  done.  This  of  course  re- 
quires no  intermediate  pulley.  As  a  rule,  however, 
one  of  the  special  clutch  or  friction  pulleys  must  come 
in  between  engine  and  separator,  as  the  latter,  though 
•strong  enough  to  do  its  own  work,  is  not  able  to  en- 
dure the  constant  though  slight -rise  and  fall  of  speed 
that  accompany  the  impulses  of  the  engine.  Some 
separator  bowls  revolve  as  many  as  20,000  times  per 
minute,  and  are  geared  so  high  that  a  variation  of  10 


432         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

revolutions   per   minute   in  the   engine's   speed   might 
make  a  difference  of  500  to  1,000  in  the  bowl. 

547.  The  Governor  Pulley,  Why  Needed.— Sepa- 
rators do  their  work  best  at  the  speed  they  were  made 
to   run,  and   they   must  be   protected   against  sudden 


Fig.    157.— The   Present   Day   Dairy   Maid   Uses   Gasoline   Power 
to  Advantage.      Note  Engine  on  Base  of  Cream   Separator. 

jerks  or  extreme  variations.  Few  people  turn  the 
separator  as  steadily  as  it  should  be  turned  by  hand, 
and  not  many  turn  it  fast  enough.  Without  a  pulley 
between  there  is  always  trouble  when  starting.  A 
gasoline  engine  starts  off  at  full  speed ;  the  separator 
has  to  be  coaxed  up  gradually.  This  trouble  can  be 
overcome  by  means  of  a  belt  tightener,  which  can  be 
thrown  in  easily  and  the  speed  of  the  spindle  brought 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  433 

up ;  after  that  it  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  engine,  no  mat- 
ter how  unsteady  the  pull  or  how  great  the  overspeed. 
This  soon  throws  the  bowl  out  of  balance  and  ruins 
the  separator.  A  steam  engine  can  be  run  without  any 
governor,  and  so  can  a  power  separator ;  neither  one 
is  safe  nor  economical.  The  speed  of  both  should  be 
right  and  it  should  be  uniform.  With  a  governor  pul- 
ley and  a  gasoline  engine  the  speed  of  the  separator 
may  be  made  both  without  any  guess-work.  The 
combination  is  better  than  hand  work ;  not  so  much 
for  a  saving  of  work,  as  for  conserving  cream  and 
butter  fat. 

548.     How   It   Works. — The   governor   pulley   is   a 
friction  pulley  which  controls  the  amount  of  energy 


Fig.    158. — The   Parker   Speed    Governor   Pulley   Secures    Steady 
Separator  Drive  From  Even  Intermittent  Gas  Power. 

or  pull  which  the  engine  exerts  upon  the  separator  as 
the  governor  does  the  amount  of  energy  turned  into 
the  steam  engine.  The  central  part  of  the  pulley  re- 
volves with  the  engine  and  starts  at  full  engine  speed, 
with  the  shaft  that  turns  it.  As  the  wood  friction 
blocks  are  forced  out  slowly  against  the  rim  of  the 


434  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

loose  pulley  that  carries  the  separator  belt,  the  latter 
is  coaxed  gradually  into  motion,  the  blocks  slipping 
a  good  deal  but  holding  enough  to  start  the  bowl.  As 
the  grip  increases  the  speed  of  the  bowl  increases  also, 
and  the  blocks  slip  less  until  they  are  finally  brought 
into  full  contact  and  turn  the  belt  pulley  uniformly 
with  the  shaft.  By  means  of  weights  and  spring,  how- 
ever, if  the  speed  of  the  pulley  gets  above  a  certain 
limit  the  grip  is  partially  released,  the  blocks  slip  a 


Fig.  159. — How  Parker  Speed  Governor  Pulley  Is  Employed. 

little  and  continue  to  slip  until  the  speed  drops  back 
to  normal  and  the  weights  to  their  place. 

549.  For  Bottled  Milk. — Where  milk  is  sold  direct 
to  families  without  separating,  or  where  cream  is  sold, 
it  should  be  aerated  thoroughly.  This  may  be  done  by 
allowing  the  discharge  to  run  over  a  cone-shaped  cap 
of  tin  which  may,  if  cooling  is  also  required,  be  packed 
with  ice.  The  milk,  discharged  upon  its  apex,  spreads 
out  in  a  thin  sheet  and  is  cooled  very  rapidly.  If 
cooling  is  not  desired  and  aeration  is  the  object,  the 
cone  may  be  made  of  fine  strainer  cloth. 

550.  Churning  by  Power. — With  the  coming  of  the 
gasoline   engine   butter-making  is   likely  to   again   be 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         435 

drawn  away  from  the  factory  and  revived  upon  the 
farm.  After  the  cream  is  separated  the  work  saved 
will  be  more  than  enough  to  run  the  cream  into  a  re- 
volving churn,  throw  on  a  belt  and  let  the  engine  do 
the  churning.  The  hard  work  in  such  a  dairy  is  all 
done  by  engine  power  and  under  conditions  that  the 
operator  can  control.  If  the  temperature  is  too  low 
there  is  plenty  of  hot  water  to  raise  it ;  if  too  high, 
cold  water  will  reduce  it,  and  of  course  thermometers 
will  be  at  hand  to  tell  when  it  is   right.     Even  the 


Fig.    K.'O. — Chuniing  by   Power  oi  Gray  Alotor. 

butter  working  may  most  of  it  be  done  with  power, 
several  rotary  workers  being  on  the  market  that  are 
easily  adapted  to  engine  action. 

551.  The  Ice  Problem. — Cold  storage,  or  at  least 
some  means  of  applying  a  low  temperature  at  will  is 
an  essential  to  good  butter-making.  Without  it  some 
people  make  good  butter;  their  care  and  skill  in  every 
other  detail  overcome  the  lack  in  one,  but  their  suc- 
cess is  achieved  in  spite  of  the  one  lack  and  not  be- 
cause of  it. 

Ice-making  is  certainly  not  a  woman's  work,  nor  is 
ice-storing,  but  much  of  her  work  is  made  so  much 
more  effective  with  the  use  of  ice  that  the  subject  is 
referred  to  hurriedly  and  its  possibilities  merely 
touched. 

For  the  many  farmers  who  wish  to  put  up  ice  but 
dread  to  do  so  for  fear  of  an  accident  if  the  work  of 


436 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


cutting  is  done  with  team  power,  a  gasoline  motor  ice- 
cutting  machine  is  illustrated ;  then,  of  course,  whether 
the  ice  is  to  be  stored  at  the  edge  of  the  pond  or  has 
to  be  hauled,  the  engine  can  be  made  use  of  just  as 
readily  as  for  any  other  kind  of  hauling. 


Fig.  i6i. — Gasoline  ]\Iotor  Driven  Ice  Cutter. 


When  the  ice  crop  fails,  or  in  parts  of  the  country 
where  there  is  no  ice,  artificial  refrigeration  has  to  be 
resorted  to.  Condensers,  and  in  fact  the  entire  plant, 
can  now  be  purchased  for  family  use  with  a  capacity 
of  as  little  as  ^  ton,  the  rating  in  this  case  meaning 
not  the  amount  of  ice  manufactured,  but  the  amount 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  437 

of  freezing  or  cooling  capacity  equal  to  that  which  ^ 
ton  of  ice  would  have  in  24  hours  while  melting. 
One  of  these  small  machines  will  cool  for  one  day  a 
properly  insulated  cold  storage  room  of  80  cubic  feet, 
or  say  10x10x8.  By  a  system  of  piping  in  connection 
with  tanks  of  calcium  chloride  solution  the  desired 
temperature,  once  obtained,  may  be  held  for  some 
hours  and  the  engine  used  for  other  purposes.  The 
same  plant  would  actually  manufacture  about  half  of 
the  above  amount  of  ice  in  twenty-four  hours.  Ala- 
chines  of  large  capacity  may,  of  course,  be  obtained. 
While  outfits  of  this  kind  are  somewhat  costl}^,  once 
installed,  they  may  be  operated  on  less  than  the  annual 
loss  sustained  on  many  farms  for  want  of  ice ;  while 
a  good  team  lost  in  some  lake  while  harvesting  ice 
would  go  far  toward  paying  for  an  artificial  plant. 

552.  Other  Household  Uses. — The  ice  cream 
freezer  naturally  comes  to  mind,  after  mentioning  ice, 
as  one  of  the  uses  to  which  gasoline  engine  power  is 
daily  being  applied,  though  it  may  not  be  an  important 
labor-saver  in  that  one  instance.  It  is  the  application 
of  power  to  the  countless  little  things,  the  doing  of 
many  things  at  once,  the  doing  of  all  things  more 
thoroughly  than  would  be  possible  if  it  depended  upon 
muscle  power,  that  accounts  for  the  extra  time  and 
vitality  and  satisfaction  the  housewife  feels  who  really 
learns  to  make  the  engine  help  her  in  every  task  that 
comes  to  her,  whether  she  ever  heard  of  its  being  so 
employed  before  or  not.  Even  if  it  proves  to  be  no 
saving  the  first  time,  if  it  succeeds  it  probably  will  be 
the  next,  for  she  wall  know  better  how  to  go  about  it. 

553.  A  Handy  Device. — Back  of  each  farm  kitchen 
work-table  a  shaft  two  or  three  feet  long  and  faced 
with  leather  should  be  stationed,  with  a  driving  pulley 
at  the   end,  where   least   in   the  way.       This   may  be 


438 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


driven  from  a  line  shaft  at  the  ceiling  of  the  kitchen 
or  from  one  hung  under  the  floor.  The  entire  leather 
face  of  this  revolving  shaft  is  virtually  a  friction  pul- 
ley. Near  it  fasten  in  a  row,  by  means  of  wooden  but- 
tons or  easily  adjusted  clamps,  some  of  the  various 
revolving  utensils  of  the  kitchen,  the  coffee  mill,  the 
spice  mill,  the  meat  chopper,  egg  beater,  nutmeg 
grater,  whatever  runs  by  wheel  power.     It  looks  like 


Fig.   162. 


A    Well    Kept   Lawn    Insured    With    ]\Iotor    Propelled 
Lawn  Mower. 


a  foolish  thing  to  use  an  engine  for  beating  an  egg. 
How  about  dropping  the  egg  in  to  be  prepared  for 
that  cake ;  then,  by  swinging  the  beater  into  place 
and  turning  a  button  so  that  its  wheel  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  friction  shaft,  being  able  to  turn  the 
attention  at  once  to  grinding  the  coffee  for  dinner. 
That  in  the  mill,  and  the  mill  swung  into  line,  we 
might  just  throw  a  nutmeg  into  the  grater  in  prepara- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  439 

tion  for  the  noontime  pie.  Or  perhaps  a  batch  of 
pepper  is  to  be  ground,  or  scraps  of  cold  meat ;  maybe 
all  of  these.  By  the  time  they  are  all  in  place  the  egg 
is  ready  for  use,  enough  coffee  ground  for  the  next 
meal  or  two ;  in  fact  a  lot  of  odds  and  ends  that  would 
have  kept  one  pair  of  hands  busily  occupied  for  an 
hour  or  more  will  have  been  gotten  out  of  the  way  in 
five  minutes  without  even  a  moment's  tiring  of  the 
wrist,  or  the  slighting  of  anything  for  want  of  time. 
Patent  bread  mixers  are  in  extensive  use  by  bakers 


Fig.    163.— a    Light    Horizontal    Air    Cooled    I.    H.    C.    Engine 
Suitable    for    Household    Use. 

and  in  hotels,  and  many  of  them  are  run  with  engine 
power.  If  there  is  no  bread  to  mix  or  if  there  is,  set 
the  engine  to  chopping  cabbage  or,  if  there  happens 
to  be  fresh  pork  or  beef  at  hand,  just  run  out  a  mess 
of  sausage ;  then  if  the  engine  is  still  running  light, 
stop  sweating,  switch  on  that  fan  overhead  and  enjoy 
better  air  and  a  cooler  kitchen.  There  are  a  lot  of 
things  in  any  kitchen  that  alone  do  not  require  en- 
gine power,  that  deserve  it  if  enough  of  them  can  be 
collected  together  and  all  done  up  at  once. 


440         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

554.  Cleaning  Various  Utensils. — When  it  comes  to 
washing  the  kitchen  utensils  water  pressure  and 
rotary  brushes,  if  necessary,  will  do  wonders.  Even 
the  heavier  dairy  machinery  may  be  in  part  at  least 
cleansed  as  a  direct  result  of  engine  energy.  Of  course 
the  old  rag  that  formerly  was  used  in  washing  out  the 
churn  has  long  ago  given  w^ay  to  a  brush  that  may 
not  be  any  more  effective  but  is  less  offensive  to  the 
health  inspector ;  still  it  has  its  germs.  Maybe  sprays 
of  hot  water  under  pressure  have  theirs,  but  they  don't 


Fig.   164. — Dynamo  Operated  by  Small  Gas  Engine  Provides  In- 
exhaustible   Lighting    Current. 

live  long.  Cream  separators  have  to  be  taken  apart 
in  order  to  be  thoroughly  washed,  but  as  each  piece 
is  taken  out  it  can  be  laid  upon  a  frame  where  pres- 
sure water  of  any  desired  temperature  is  playing  upon 
it.  By  the  time  the  last  piece  is  out  the  first  and 
probably  all  of  the  rest  have  been  well  cleaned.  May- 
be the  engine  is  not  doing  all  of  this  work,  but  it 
supplies  the  energy  that  went  into  it. 

555.  Starting  and  Stopping  the  Engine. — Turning 
the  sewing  machine  is  fun  for  an  engine,  and  the  tread 
can  be  replaced  with  a  foot  lever  for  throwing  a  belt- 
tightener  on  and  off  in  order  to  stop  and  start  at  will. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  441 

About  every  important  task  about  the  house  the  en- 
gine will  take  a  hand  at  except  perhaps  filling  the 
lamps  and  making  the  beds.  Even  in  this  it  is  not 
wholly  useless.  If  an  elevator  is  put  in  it  will  readily 
carry  the  bed-maker  up  to  the  task  and  then,  if  desired, 
down  cellar,  when  the  work  is  all  done,  to  turn  off  the 
power.  Even  this  is  unnecessary  work.  A  string  can 
be  carried  from  the  end  of  the  switch  lever  to  the 
kitchen  table  and  a  pull  upon  it  is  enough  to  put  out 
the  vital  spark  and  turn  this  jolly  little  helper  in  a 
moment  into  a  piece  of  motionless  iron.  It  will  take 
a  trip  to  the  basement  to  revive  the  spark,  but,  by 
storing  up  a  little  compressed  air  in  a  tank  for  the 
purpose,  or  by  a  friction  brake,  we  may  easily  ride 
down  in  the  elevator  and  then,  having  started  the  en- 
gine, come  up  on  gasoline  power. 

Such  are  some  of  the  possibilities,  serious  and  other- 
wise, of  the  gasoline  engine  as  a  helper  for  woman- 
kind. Many  of  them  are  given  only  suggestively. 
Actual  conditions  vary  too  much  for  accurate  details. 
The  fact  remains  that  ingenuity  and  a  little  money 
may  introduce  into  any  department  of  housework,  al- 
most, a  force  that  will  save  both  time  and  vital  energy 
for  other  lines  of  work.  Filling  the  lamps  we  have  not 
made  the  engine  do  yet.  Let  us  see  if  that  is  pos- 
sible. 

556.  Filling  the  Lamps.— ^A  number  of  engines  now 
on  the  market  run  so  smoothly  that  it  is  possible  to 
run  a  dynamo  directly  from  the  engine,  but  it  is  not 
always  convenient  to  keep  the  power  in  operation  at 
night,  when  lighting  is  needed ;  so  a  storage  battery  is 
by  far  the  best,  as  a  successful  lighting  system  must 
be  available  at  any  hour.  These  batteries  may  be 
charged  during  the  day,  whenever  the  engine  is  run- 
ning some  other  machine  which  does  not  require  all 


442         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

of  its  energy.  At  first,  to  save  installation  cost  the 
battery  may  be  small  in  size ;  enough  for  a  little  re- 
serve electric  energy  but  still  depending  in  the  main 
upon  the  engine  itself.  This  is  quite  economical  if  the 
engine  is  no  larger  than  necessary  to  run  the  dynamo 
alone.  If  larger  than  that  all  of  its  superfluous  energy, 
without  the  storage  battery,  is  likely  to  be  wasted. 
The  storage  system  can  be  added  to,  cell  by  cell,  much 
like  the  sections  of  a  built-up  book  case,  until  not  only 
enough  energy  to  run  the  lights  for  the  entire  farm  for 
a  night  is  stored  ahead,  but  enough  for  some  of  the 
small  tasks  that  might  be  done  by  the  engine  direct, 
such  as  rimning  the  sewing-machine.  For  many  of 
these  light  tasks  electric  motors  are  even  more  con- 
venient than  the  gasoline  engine ;  still  it  is  all  gaso- 
line power  in  another  form,  since  it  was  the  gasoline 
engine  that  created  our  electric  current. 

557.  Storage  Battery  Capacity. — Storage  batteries 
are  rated  in  ampere  hours,  a  24-ampere  hour  battery 
meaning  one  that  will  give  24  hours  of  current  service 
when  not  discharged  at  more  than  normal  rate.  A 
battery  of  this  capacity  may  give  3  amperes  for  8 
hours  at  the  normal  rate,  but  if  discharged  at  more 
than  its  normal  hourly  rate  the  time  of  its  service 
would  be  more  than  proportionately  decreased,  so  that 
its  full  24-ampere  hour  capacity  would  not  be  reached. 
It  is  on  this  account  ir-oortant  that  the  battery  in- 
stalled has  sufficient  capacity  for  all  demands  upon  it. 
It  takes  about  10  hours  to  fully  recharge  at  the  same 
rate  the  2-hour  battery.  A  36-ampere  hour  battery  will 
run  9  15-watt  i2-candle  power  tungsten  lamps  7^ 
hours  (the  standard  time  of  normal  rating)  in  a  30-volt 
low  voltage  plant,  which  is  satisfactory  for  the 
average  residence  lighting;  it  will  run  twice  that  num- 
ber (18)  only  2y^  hours,  or  considerably  less  than  half 


Tpie  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         443 

as  long.  On  no  volts  (used  generally  in  large  lighting 
plants)  it  will  operate  19  25-watt,  20-candle  power 
tungsten  or  10  50-watt  i6-candle  power  carbon  lamps 
yYo  hours. 

As  there  is  always  some  wasted  electric  energy  in 
the  use  of  a  storage  battery  it  is  more  economical  to 
operate  the  lights  in  part  from  the  dynamo  and  depend 
upon  the  battery  rather  as  an  assistant  when  it  is  not 


convenient  to  run  the  engine.     Stil 


the  storage  bat- 


«iil^ 


Fig.   165. — Electric  Farm  Lighting  Outfit  Turns  Night  Into  Day 
and  Provides  Another  City  Convenience  for  the  Farmer. 

tery  does  prove  that  a  gasoline  engine  can  be  made  to 
fill  ready  for  lighting  the  finest  lamps  in  the  world. 

558.  Lighting  Up. — For  the  man  or  woman  in  the 
living  rooms  above  lighting  up  consists  only  of  press- 
ing a  button  or,  more  often,  of  turning  a  thumb-screw 
in  the  base  of  the  lamp.  The  duty  of  the  attendant  in 
the  basement  is  hardly  more  difficult,  though  of  a  dif- 
ferent nature.  At  one  side  of  a  well  equipped  electric 
light  outfit  stands  the  switch-board  (see  Fig.  166).     If 


444  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

the  lamps  are  to  be  operated  from  the  dynamo  only 
the  dynamo  or  main  switch  is  closed  by  bringing  the 
handle  downward  until  the  copper  frame  is  pressed 
into  the  grooves  made  to  receive  it.  If  the  battery  is 
to  be  charged,  the  two  battery  switches  are  raised.  If 
the  lamps  are  to  be  run  with  the  battery  only,  the 
dynamo  switch  is  opened  by  raising  the  handle  and 
bringing  the  two  battery  switches  downward. 


Fig.   i66.— Complete  Residence  Lighting  Outfit  for  Country  Use. 


559.  The  Complete  System. — The  conditions  placed 
upon  an  engine  used  to  run  a  dynamo  are  so  severe 
that  it  was  long  considered  impossible  to  meet  them 
with  a  power  which,  like  the  gasoline  engine,  acquires 
its  energy  in  bunches;  in  fact,  the  present  high  ef- 
ficiency of  our  best  steam  engines  was  forced  upon  the 
engineering  world  to  meet  these  electrical  demands. 
To  belt  a  dynamo  directly  to  a  gasoline  engine  is  to 
reproduce  in  the  current  sent  out  all  the  energy  pulsa- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  445 

tions  of  the  engine.  Lights  run  directly  from 
the  dynamo  would  flicker  and  wink.  This  may 
be  in  part  overcome  by  putting  heavier  balance  wheels 
on  the  engine  and  so  absorbing  in  their  heavy  rims 
slight  speed  variations.  Governor  pulleys  are  also 
sometimes  used,  the  same  as  for  a  cream  separator ; 
or  the  current  may  be  conducted  to  a  storage  battery 
and  then  drawn  from  that.  Several  engines  are  now 
on   the    market,   however,   that   run   so   steadily   that 


Fig.   167.— Storage  Battery  Employed  In  Connection  With  House 
Lighting-   Outlit. 

quite  satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained  from  the 
direct  belted  dynamo  providing  the  engine  is  not  over- 
loaded. 

The  low  voltage  (30-volt)  outfits  generally  favored 
for  residence  and  farm  lighting  consist  of  about  a 
2  H.  P.  gasoline  or  kerosene  engine,  say  a  50-light 
dynamo,  a  storage  battery,  switchboard,  and  the  lamps 
required  for  the  place,  w^ith  necessary  wiring  sup- 
plies. If  there  is  plenty  of  room  the  dynamo  should 
be  driven  by  a  belt;  if  not,  it  may  be  direct  con- 
nected with  the  engine,  but  a  belt  driven  outfit  is 
rather  more  steadv. 


446         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

An  outfit  of  this  sort  will  furnish  plenty  of  light 
for  the  average  residence,  barn  and  out-buildings,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  dynamo  is  charging  the  stor- 
age battery  the  engine  may  be  used  for  other  light 
power  such  as  cooling  fans,  cream  separators  or  any 
light  running  device  that  develops  little  speed  varia- 
tion;  or  a  part  of  the  current  produced  may  be  di- 
rected into  convenient  little  electric  motors  for  run- 
ning sewing  machines,  ice  cream  freezers,  or  into  elec- 


FiG.    i68.— Electric    Lamp   Using   Incandescent   Fila 


ment. 


trie  flatirons  and  many  other  household  conveniences. 
Where  much  of  this  work  is  to  be  done  a  larger 
dynamo  and  engine  will  be  necessary.  If  general 
power  engines  are  used  for  electric  light  work  they 
must  be  of  the  highest  grade. 

The  wiring  system  should  be  as  short  as  possible 
as  there  is  always  more  or  less  waste  along  the  line, 
usually  5%  or  more.  The  lighting  plant  is  not  com- 
plete, though,  that  fails  to  include  the  barn  in  the 
circuit.      Not    only   is    the    electric    light    much    more 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  447 

convenient  than  any  other  kind,  it  is  much  more 
effective  and  safer.  There  is  no  chance  for  over- 
turned lanterns  and  the  hghts  do  not  blow  out  at 
just  the  critical  moment.  When  caring  for  sick  stock 
the  electric  light  is  of  special  value.  These  low  volt- 
age plants  are  not  in  the  least  dangerous  as  they  are 
not  powerful  enough  to  be  harmful  if  by  acci-dent  an 
uninsulated  wire  was  touched. 

560.  Door  Maid  and  Burglar  Chaser. — Among  the 
earlier  household  conveniences  likely  to  be  installed 
after  the  electric  light  has  been  established  is  a  sys- 
tem of  electric  door-bells  and  electric  burglar  alarms. 
The  latter  is  particularly  valuable  in  the  country, 
where,  as  a  rule,  the  attention  of  marauders  is  given 
to  the  hen-roost  or  horse  stable  or  some  part  of  the 
premises  so  far  away  that  the  invasion  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  heard  at  the  house,  except  by  accident.  Not 
only  will  these  electric  signals  frighten  intruders  away 
but  they  will  keep  them  away  more  effectually  than 
any  watch-dog  can.  Either  bells  or  buzzers  or,  per- 
haps better  still,  an  electric  light  can  be  so  wired  in, 
that  the  opening  of  a  door  at  night  will  close  an 
electric  circuit  and  flood  the  place  with  light. 

561.  Making  Electrical  Conveniences  Available  on 
the  Farm. — Practically  all  of  the  household  duties  that 
the  gasoline  engine  can  do  the  electric  motor  can 
do  even  more  conveniently,  after  the  engine  has  given 
it  the  power  to  do  at  all.  Without  the  engine  elec- 
tricity could  not  be  made  available  on  more  than 
one  farm  in  a  hundred,  and  even  where  electric  power 
plants  are  within  wiring  distance  the  man  who  must 
depend  for  his  power  upon  someone  else,  rather  than 
upon  his  own  resources,  is  at  the  mercy  not  only  of 
every  breakdown  but  of  all  the  strikes  and  disputes 
between  labor  and  capital  without  having  any  voice 


448         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

whatever  in  their  settlement.  At  best,  the  average 
price  of  electric  energy  when  purchased  is  more  than 
its  production  costs  upon  the  farm  and  it  is  only  into 
the  home-grown  product  that  the  farmer  may  put  his 
own  work  or  that  of  his  eager  boys.  Taking  the 
country  over,  the  average  price  charged  by  the  cen- 
tral station  companies  is  12  to  15  cents  per 
1,000  watts,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  i^ 
horse-power.  Making  a  fair  allowance  for  losses 
in  transmission,  the  cost  of  the  home-made  cur- 
rent is  less  than  half  of  that  produced  in  the  distant 
plant. 

562.  The  Engine  the  Housewife  Needs. — The  gas- 
oline engine  for  the  woman  must  not  be  hard  to  start. 
Some  of  the  first  light  engines  brought  out  were  too 
heavy  and  difficult;  the  average  woman  became  dis- 
gusted or  discouraged.  The  man  who  has  been  ac- 
customed to  pottering  with  machinery  problems  all 
his  life  may  be  willing  to  spend  two  hours  making 
an  engine  do  a  bit  of  work  that  he  could  do  without 
it  in  twenty  minutes,  rather  than  give  up.  The  aver- 
age woman  will  do  the  work  the  old  way  and  order 
the  engine  to  the  junk-pile. 

The  household  engine  must  be  moderately  clean  in 
its  habits.  A  w^oman  may  put  up  with  a  tobacco- 
soaked  man,  but  with  an  oil-soaked  floor  and  greasy 
engine — never. 

It  must  not  be  immoderately  noisy,  and  it  must  be 
dependable.  After  she  has  used  it  enough  to  form 
a  lasting  attachment  for  it  she  will  overlook  some  of 
its  occasional  short-comings.  At  the  first,  the  chances 
are  she  does  not  more  than  half  believe  in  it  any- 
way, and  every  little  fault  will  only  add  to  her 
suspicions. 

In  short,  the  engine  that  a  woman  wants  is  one  that 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  449 

will   relieve   her  of  a   portion   of  her  worries   instead 
of  adding  to  them. 

563.  The  Farm  Girl  and  Boy. — Someone  has  dis- 
covered that  the  way  to  keep  the  boy  on  the  farm  is 
to  keep  the  girl  there,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
wisdom  in  his  discovery;  still  it  is  only  a  half  truth. 
The  rest  of  it  is  to  make  farming  conditions  and  coun- 
try life  such  that  it  will  develop  rather  than  suppress 
the  best  social  and  intellectual  tendencies  and 
respect  the  courtesies  of  life.  Both  the  boy 
and  the  girl  prefer  the  drudgery  of  some  phase 
of  city  life  which  is  a  complete  mystery  to 
them  to  that  of  the  ditch-digger  and  scrub- 
woman some  of  them  are  familiar  with  in  their  own 
neighborJioods.  Such  conditions  have  been  abolished 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  and  wherever  this  is 
so  we  will  find  farm  conveniences  and  farm  machin- 
ery in  an  advanced  state  of  development ;  the  develop- 
ment, in  fact,  being  largely  responsible  for  the  condi- 
tions. No  boy  or  girl  of  independent  spirit  can  will- 
ingly become  a  part  of  a  life  that  seems  inferior  and 
humiliating  so  long  as  the  world  seems  to  offer  bet- 
ter opportunities  elsewhere.  It  isn't  so  much  the 
lightening  of  their  work  that  they  demand ;  it  is  the 
elevation  of  farm  life  from  the  drudgery  of  the  slums 
to  a  plane  of  which  they  have  no  need  to  be  ashamed. 
It  means  the  touch  of  beauty  and  cultivated  taste  that 
all  right  lives  desire ;  an  occasional  hour  of  leisure  for 
self  culture,  for  improvement,  for  recreation,  and  that, 
too,  in  the  midst  of  surroundings  which  suggest  some- 
thing more  than  constant  hard  work.  The  average 
farm  boy  is  not  lazy  and  neither  is  the  farm  girl. 
They  do  not  wish  to  escape  work  so  much  as  to  reap 
some  of  the  rewards  for  it  that  they  have  earned,  one 
of  which  is  the  right  to  develop  their  best  ideals  with- 


450         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

out  the  depressing  influence  of  humiliating  compari- 
sons. If  there  are  any  means  within  the  reach  of  to- 
day's farm  life  for  permitting  this,  that  cheerful  little 
plodder,  the  gasoline  farm  engine,  is  the  most  im- 
portant. 

564.  The  Price. — Reckoned  in  dollars  and  cents, 
the  price  of  all  this  saving  of  a  woman's  energy  may 
run  anywhere  from  $20  up ;  less  than  the  cost 
of  a  binder,  a  mowxr,  a  corn  harvester,  a  hay 
rake,  a  drill,  a  loader  or  any  one  of  a  dozen 
other  man-saving  devices.  At  least  one  special 
household  engine,  guaranteed  to  develop  a  full 
>^  horse-power  and  capable  of  running  almost 
any  one  of  the  devices  suggested  at  a  time, 
can  be  purchased  in  one  style  for  $16  and  in  another 
for  $18;  then  there  is  the  additional  cost  of  installa- 
tion and  applying,  in  money,  work  and  ingenuity.  The 
price  of  one  good  cigar  a  day  for  a  month,  of  one 
doctor's  bill,  of  a  few  weeks'  loss  of  time  while  re- 
covering from  the  result  of  overwork,  of  a  few  months' 
washing  bill  if  done  outside,  of  the  waste  in  cream 
and  butter  fat  that  occurs  between  factory  and 
farm ;  any  of  these,  if  we  count  it  up  in  dollars  and 
cents,  would  represent  the  price. 

565.  What  Others  Pay. — The  price  that  others 
pay,  that  we  pay,  if  we  persist  in  the  old  methods,  is 
not  to  be  so  easily  computed  in  coin  of  the  realm, 
though  it  has  a  liberal  expression  in  that  also.  The 
real  cost,  however,  is  in  human  life ;  in  the  life  of  the 
housewife  that  is  shortened  by  overwork ;  that  is 
blighted  even  before  it  is  completed  by  the  ceaseless, 
hopeless,  unending  drudgery  which  is  never  lightened 
by  a  sense  of  completion  or  by  a  promise  of  any- 
thing better  for  to-morrow  than  the  unending  tread- 
mill  of  to-day.     The  real  cost  is  the  home  influence 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  451 

out  of  which  the  entire  family  is  cheated  because 
there  IS  no  time  for  anything  but  work ;  not  the  work 
that  uplifts  and  inspires  but  the  sort  that  dulls  the 
intellect  and  kills  out  the  ideals  which  are  a  legiti- 
mate part  of  human  life  and  of  which  no  one,  young 
or  old,  has  any  right  to  be  deprived.  The  real  cost 
is  the  lost  respect  of  the  young  people  for  the  farm, 
which  is  to  them  a  synonym  of  resultless  toil ;  their 
hatred  of  all  that  pertains  to  farm  life,  almost  of  do- 
mestic life,  because  of  its  caricature  which  has  been 
forced  upon  them  by  a  system  of  hard  work  which 
has  all  too  often  been  allowed  to  degenerate  into  the 
drudgery  that  makes  of  the  home  only  a  place  to 
eat  and  sleep — and  work. 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 
HOME-^IADE    CONVENIENCES. 

566.  Self  Moving  Engines. — With  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  wind-mills,  home-made  tractors  have  un- 
doubtedly been  launched  in  greater  variety  than  any 


Fig.  169. — Tractor  Sawing  Outfit  of  Leslie  Reed,  Cottonwood, 
Idaho,  Goes  to  Work  Under  Its  Own  Power  and  Is  an  In- 
genious  Home  Made   Apparatus. 

other  form  of  home  contrivance  of  importance  on  the 
farm.  This  has  partly  been  due  to  the  general  call 
of  the  farm  for  power  and  partly  to  the  tardiness  of 

452 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  453 

the  manufacturers  in  seeing  either  the  possibilities 
along  this  line  in  the  farm  gasoline  engine  or  the  pe- 
culiar requirements  which  a  farm  tractor  must  ful- 
fill. Tractors  and  trailers  had  become  so  much  a  fix- 
ity in  the  manufacturing  brain  that  no  one  but  the 
farmer  himself  thought  of  considering  any  other 
design. 

567.  Light  Power  Tractors. — Naturally  the  first  at- 
tempts at  farm  tractor  building  were  of  the  simplest 
kind.  A  pair  of  discarded  mowing  machine  wheels 
furnished  the  drivers,  to  one  of  which  a  belt  pulley 
was  securely  bolted.  The  other  was  left  to  turn  free, 
and  so  the  necessities  of  differential  gear  were  avoided. 
A  belt  run  from  the  engine  to  the  drive  wheel  pulley 
applied  the  power  to  the  work.  A  tightener  pulley 
applied  and  released  by  a  lever  made  it  possible  to 
start  the  engine  without  moving  the  drivers  and  then 
to  turn  the  power  upon  them  gradually.  A  team  was 
sometimes  hitched  ahead  to  do  the  guiding  or  a  guide 
rod  similar  to  a  regular  tractor  might  be  rigged.  Any 
form  of  vertical  drum  upon  which  is  wound  at  its 
center  a  length  of  rope  which  terminates  at  each  end 
at  the  front  axle  makes  a  complete  and  cheap  guid- 
ing outfit.  Such  a  tractor  can  be  made  at  very  small 
cost,  less  than  $10  outside  of  what  material  may  be 
pulled  from  any  junk  pile,  and  it  makes  a  very  con- 
venient means  of  moving  an  otherwise  stationary  en- 
gine about  from  place  to  place,  under  its  own  power. 
Many  3  H.  P.  engines  have  been  utilized  in 
this  way,  while  even  as  small  as  i  H.  P.  tractors 
have  been  reported.  This  latter  outfit  had  a 
speed  of  6  miles  per  hour,  would  climb  any 
ordinary  hill  and  was  capable  of  carrying  two 
people  besides  moving  itself.  Its  rear  wheels  came 
from  an  old  mower  and  the  front  ones  from  a  worn- 


454         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

out  go-cart.  Instead  of  the  drum  guide  it  was  fur- 
nished with  a  lever  which  connected  at  one  end  of 
the  front  axle  with  both  a  rope  and  an  iron  rod.  When 
the  lever  was  pulled  the  rope  drew  the  axle  back ;  when 
it  was  pushed  the  rod  shoved  it  ahead.  As  extreme 
lightness  has  to  be  sought  in  these  very  small  power 
rigs  in  order  to  keep  within  the  capacity  of  the  engine, 
there  can  be  little  tractive  power  and  the  work  can 
only  be  of  a  carrying  nature,  the  load  being  applied 
to  the  axle  of  the  drivers  from  above  and  so  adding 
to  their  tractive  capacity.  On  a  draw-bar  pull  so  light 
a  rig  could  not  be  very  effective. 

568.  The  Horseless  Buggy. — Quite  naturally  when 
it  was  discovered  that  small  engines  could  actually 
be  made  to  propel  themselves,  somebody  thought  to 
load  one  into  a  buggy  and  connect  up  in  a  similar  way. 
The  wheels  of  course  lacked  w^idth  and  tractor  lugs ; 
still  the  greater  diameter  made  the  experiment  enough 
of  a  success  to  w^arrant  other  attempts  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  see  these  home-made  horseless  bug- 
gies travelling  around  at  a  fair  speed  in  sections  where 
the  roads  are  not  too  hilly.  Where  tractor  lugs  are 
found  necessary,  a  makeshift  that  has  the  merit  of 
cheapness  may  be  made  out  of  heavy  fence  wire 
wound  spirally  about  the  tires  and  properly  secured. 

One  rather  unique  road  outfit  was  constructed  out 
of  a  2  H.  P.  marine  engine  mounted  on  ordinary  bi- 
cycle wheels  with  the  cones  taken  out  and  babbitted 
to  a  steel  shaft.  It  was  driven  with  chain  and 
sprocket  and  developed  a  speed  of  about  15  miles  per 
hour. 

569.  Low  Power  Trucking. — Greater  working  ca- 
pacity can  be  gotten  out  of  these  small  engines  on 
trucking  outfits  than  in  any  other  way,  because  all 
the   weight   of   the   load   put   upon    them,   within   the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  455 

capacity  of  the  engine,  adds  to  their  tractive  power. 
Motor  trucks  which  carry  the  engine  within  them- 
selves have  a  very  much  higher  percentage  of  effi- 
ciency than  do  tractors  used  to  exert  their  energy  at 
the  drawbar,  and  this  advantage  is,  of  course,  more 
marked  in  the  smaller  engines  than  in  large  ones  that 
have  more  or  less  power  to  spare.  Farmers  who  have 
taken  advantage  of  this  fact  have  frequently  obtained 
surprising  results  from  their  small-power  engines  and 
have  in  effect  moved  themselves  several  miles  nearer 
to  their  city  markets  than  they  were  while  depending 
upon  horses. 

570,  What  an  Old  Farm  Wagon  Can  Do. — The 
ordinary  farm  v/agon,  harnessed  to  a  gasoline  engine 
in  the  simplest  manner,  can  be  made  to  do  almost  the 
work  of  the  factory  truck  so  long  as  the  pull  is  al- 
ways straight  ahead  and  at  the  same  rate  of  fravel. 
In  practical  work,  however,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
introduce  differential  gearing  and  so  permit  of  short 
turns  and  all  inequalities  of  rate  at  which  the  driving 
wheels  revolve.  It  is  not  good  economy  to  apply 
the  power  to  one  wheel  only  when  hauling  loads  and 
not  convenient  to  apply  it  separately  to  each  of  the 
two  wheels.  The  differential  is  the  only  really  cor- 
rect solution.  It  is  also  often  necessary,  when  going 
over  difficult  ground,  to  slow  down  much  below  the 
rate  at  which  the  wagon  should  ordinarily  move,  nor 
is  any  working  rig  satisfactory  if  it  cannot  be  backed 
a  few  feet  or  inches  by  the  same  power  that  propels 
it.  For  these  requirements  a  transmission,  including 
gear  shifts  of  some  sort,  is  essential.  All  add  a  little 
to  the  work  of  construction ;  also  to  the  expense,  but 
they  add  still  more  to  efficiency,  which  after  all  is 
the  true  measure  of  profitable  construction.  With  this 
in  mind  a  number  of  farmers  have  constructed  motor 


456  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

trucks  of  their  own  with  which  they  can  go  any  place 
on  the  farm  at  a  safe  rate,  and  on  the  road  at  a  speed 
that  makes  them  far  more  profitable  than  a  team, 
although  they  did  not  cost  as  much.  With  3  to  6  H.  P. 
engines  farm  wagons  have  been  turned  by  home  work 
into  motor  trucks  capable  of  hauling  the  full  capacity 
of  the  wagon  at  a  load  and  of  making  at  least  three 
trips  to  market  while  the  average  farm  team  makes 
one. 

571.  A  Rapid  Post-hole  Digger. — ^Making  the  hole 
and  setting  a  post  complete  for  the  wires  at  the  rate 
of  one  a  minute  would  be  considered  quite  a  feat  by 
any  fence-builder,  but  the  gasoline  engine  with  a 
home-made  rig  can  easily  discount  that.  If  there  is 
a  hoist  at  hand  that  can  be  mounted  on  the  sills  of 
the  engine  the  work  is  greatly  simplified,  it  being  only 
necessary  to  add  to  the  rig  a  couple  of  uprights  12 
or  15  feet  high,  well  braced  and  boxed  to  guide  a 
descending  weight  between  them,  and  fitted  at  the 
top  with  an  axle  bearing  a  crown  or  sheave  pulley  for 
carrying  the  rope.  An  iron  weight  weighing  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds  is  secured  to  one  end  of 
the  rope  wdiich  passes  over  the  sheave  to  the  drum  of 
the  hoist  and  works  easily  up  and  down  in  the  guides. 
By  throwing  the  clutch  to  engage  the  drum  this 
weight  is  wound  up  and  lifted ;  then  hand  power  or 
an  automatic  clutch-release  frees  the  drum  and  per- 
mits the  weight  to  fall  several  feet  upon  the  end  of 
the  post,  which  should  be  suspended  over  the  spot 
where  it  is  to  be  driven,  so  that  it  may  of  itself  take 
a  vertical  position.  The  post,  of  course,  is  sharpened 
same  as  for  hand  driving,  but  a  few  blows  delivered 
by  such  a  force  wdll  settle  it  into  the  earth  much 
quicker  and  more  securely  than  the  most  vigorous  of 
hand  driving.     A  stop  should  be  provided  under  the 


The  Gasoline  Exgine  on  the  Farm  457 

weight  to  prevent  its  descent  below  a  certain  point ; 
then  all  the  posts  driven  will  be  left  the  same  distance 
above  ground  without  the  trouble  of  measuring.  The 
truck  on  wliich  the  outfit  rides  may  be  hauled  by  team 
or  by  one  horse,  though  it  is  much  more  convenient 
to  make  it  self  propelling,  as  the  engine  has  nothing 
else  to  do  while  being  moved  from  post  to  post.  The 
weight  should  be  large  enough  in  diameter  to  permit 
of  some  variation  in  locating  the  post,  as  the  rig  may 
not  alw^ays  be  stopped  exactly  on  the  line  of  the  fence. 

Where  a  ready  made  hoist  is  not  at  hand  the  same 
results  may  be  obtained  by  substituting  for  it  a  home- 
made drum  or  wheel  of  large  diameter  in  the  rim  of 
which  a  crank-pin  catches  and  then  suddenly  releases 
the  rope,  exactly  as  is  done  by  the  drill  in  well  drill- 
ing. \Mth  a  well  made  outfit  of  this  sort  one  can 
drive  posts  almost  as  rapidly  as  they  can  be  swamg 
into  place,  a  very  few^  blows  from  such  a  weight  being 
enough  to  sink  a  post  any  reasonable  depth. 

572.  The  Home-made  Well-drill. — Home-made 
well-drilling  rigs  are  practically  only  simplified  exten- 
sions of  the  post  driving  outfit.  The  uprights  must  be 
high  enough  to  lift  the  drill  and  auger  stem  clear 
of  the  ground  and  strong  enough  to  support  it.  Auger 
stems  for  w^ater  wells  usually  run  from  6  to  25  feet  in 
length  and  weigh  from  150  pounds  up,  a  three-inch 
stem  weighing  about  23.5  pounds  per  foot  of  length. 
Where  a  very  short  string  of  tools  is  used  the  length 
of  a  joint  of  pipe  or  tubing  will  determine  the  height 
of  derrick  as  it  is  much  easier  to  add  to  the  height 
than  to  cut  and  thread  each  joint. 

After  strength  and  capacity  for  handling  standard 
length  pipe,  the  main  features  that  determine  the  suc- 
cess of  a  w^ell-drilling  outfit  are  the  lift  of  the  tools 
and   the   suddenness   of  their  release,  their   power  to 


458          The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

penetrate  the  earth  depending  upon  the  number  of 
foot-pounds  energy  per  minute  with  which  they  strike. 
It  is  evident  that  a  weight  of  300  pounds  falHng  a 
distance  of  two  feet  will  deliver  twice  the  force  in 
foot  pounds  of  that  given  by  a  150-pound  weight  fall- 
ing the  same  distance ;  also  that  its  penetrating  ca- 
pacity would  be  doubled  if  its  fall  w^as  four  feet  in- 
stead of  two.  Whether  this  force  were  delivered  in 
the  form  of  a  sudden  blow  or  as  a  gradual  thrust  mat- 
ters only  because,  if  the  latter,  it  indicates  that  there 
is  either  an  excess  of  friction  against  wdiich  the  energy 
of  the  descending  mass  expends  itself  or  else  that  a 
part  of  the  force  is  absorbed  by  the  rope.  If  it  is  the 
latter,  it  means  that  the  cable  is  being  restrained  so 
that  the  foot-pound  energy  is  being  expended  in  part 
upon  that  instead  of  on  the  rock ;  that  is,  the  release 
of  the  cable  is  not  quick  enough  or  complete  enough 
to  allow  the  falling  tools  to  follow  the  call  of  grav- 
ity without  interference.  The  drilling  speed  depends 
entirely  upon  the  hardness  of  the  material  penetrated 
and  the  number  of  foot-pound  energy  delivered 
against  the  rock. 

573.  A  Good  Barn  Hoist. — Tw^o  stout  brackets  or 
standards,  preferably  of  iron,  support  each  end  of  a 
stout  iron  shaft  on  which  revolves  a  flanged  iron 
drum  to  which,  when  used  in  hoisting  hay,  the  hay 
rope  is  attached.  A  friction  clutch  or  disk  which  re- 
volves with  the  shaft  is  pressed  forward  by  means 
•of  a  lever  against  the  drum  and  made  to  revolve  it  as 
rapidly  as  the  shaft  revolves  or  less  so,  as  the  con- 
tact pressure  is  increased  or  diminished  between  the 
disk  and  drum.  The  pressure  may  be  maintained  by 
holding  the  lever  on,  in  case  the  operator  wishes  to 
also  run  the  fork  at  the  load,  by  means  of  a  small 
rope  attached  to  the  lever,  while  a  heavy  spring  con- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


459 


stantly  tends  to  draw  it  back  and  insures  the  drum 
stopping-  promptly  when  lever  is  released.  By  eas- 
ing the  friction  contact  the  load  may  be  held  at  any 
desired  point  or  lowered  a  little  and  then  caught  and 
held.  With  a  return  weight  attached  to  hay  car,  when 
the  load  is  dumped  and  the  clutch  released,  the  drum 
revolves  as  a  loose  spool  upon  the  shaft  and  unwinds 


Fig.  I/O. — Double  Drum  Hoist  for  Use  In  Connection  With  Gaso- 
line Engine  Made  by  Brown  Clutch  Company. 


the  rope  readily,  with  far  less  pull  than  is  necessary 
in  drawing  a  heavy  rope  back  over  the  ground.  The 
shaft  itself  is  geared  or  belted  directly  to  the  engine 
and  revolves  in  the  one  direction  constantly.  In  lifts 
of  this  sort  gear  or  sprocket  wheels  are  preferable 
to  belts  on  account  of  the  slippage  of  the  latter  under 
intermittent  pulls.     It  is  of  great  importance  that  the 


460  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

shaft  be  heav}"  enough  to  insure  against  bending  or 
springing.  A  good  three-horse  engine  ought  to  oper- 
ate a  well  made  rig  of  this  sort  with  entire  satisfac- 
tion and  will  unload  hay  considerably  more  than  twice 
as  quickly  as  a  team  will,  especially  if  there  is  a 
shortage  of  help.  One  man  on  the  load  can  tend  fork 
and  hoist  very  nicely,  leaving  all  the  rest  of  the  help 
free  to  go  into  the  mow  if  they  are  needed  there. 

The  same  rig  can,  of  course,  be  used  for  swinging 
up  hay  ladders,  hoisting  wagon-boxes  or  elevating 
loads  of  any  kind.  By  means  of  it  a  small  elevator 
may  be  operated  from  beside  the  threshing  floor  and 
the  grain  taken  in  lots  of  ten  or  more  bushels  to  ele- 
vated bins,  though  a  more  convenient  arrangement 
for  the   purpose   is  the  regular  grain  elevator. 

574.  Grain  Tender  at  Threshing  Time. — Elevated 
grain  bins  have  many  advantages,  the  most  important 
of  which,  perhaps,  is  the  ease  with  which  gravity 
may  then  be  made  use  of  when  bringing  the  grain  to 
the  stables,  the  feed  mill,  fanning  mill,  or  when  load- 
ing it  for  market.  As  a  rule,  too,  elevated  bins  may 
be  located  in  some  out-of-the-way  place  where  there 
is  room  to  spare  instead  of  on  the  main  floor  where 
perhaps  every  inch  of  space  is  needed.  The  one  draw- 
back to  them  is  the  work  required  in  getting  the  grain 
into  them.  This  work  the  gasoline  engine  is  always 
ready  to  do. 

A  first  class  grain  elevator  is  worthy  of  a  perma- 
nent location ;  it  should  be  made  a  part  of  the  barn 
itself.  Having  determined  about  what  the  position  of 
the  separator  grain  spout  will  be  at  threshing  time, 
take  up  a  couple  of  planks  from  the  threshing  floor 
and  build  a  hopper-shaped  bin  or  one  with  sloping 
bottom  in  between  the  joists;  one  that  will  hold  from 
five  to  ten  bushels  of  grain.     Cut  off  enough  from  the 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


461 


462         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

ends  of  the  flooring  plank  to  cover  this  bin,  return 
the  long  ends  to  place  and  fasten  securely ;  then  out 
of  the  short  ends  construct  a  solid  door  or  man-hole 
cover,  both  ends  and  both  edges  of  which  rest  upon 
solid  supports  below.  A  little  care  in  this  respect  may 
be  the  means  of  avoiding  a  serious  accident.  Never 
depend  on  dropping  the  short  pieces  into  place  with- 
out some  means  of  fastening  them  there.  Secure  them 
with  a  hasp  of  some  sort.  If  this  fastening  can  be 
done  from  the  lower  side  it  will  save  the  presence  of 
annoying  staples  on  the  floor  above. 

The  elevating  trough  should  begin  just  below  the 
lowest  point  in  the  hopper  bottom  of  the  bin,  so  that 
everything  in  it  will  drop  into  the  trough.  At  the 
lower  extremity  a  pair  of  sprocket  wheels  carry  each 
a  chain  to  which  are  attached  the  conveyors.  The 
shape  of  these  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  pitch  of  the 
ascent.  If  there  is  plenty  of  slope  a  very  satisfactory 
elevator  may  be  made  of  wooden  slats  bolted  upright 
upon  the  chains ;  if  the  ascent  approaches  the  perpen- 
dicular the  regular  purchased  buckets,  such  as  are  used 
in  mills,  are  best.  They  occupy  less  room  and  are 
so  uniform  in  size  that  the  spout  in  which  they  run 
may  be  a  very  accurate  fit  and  so  permit  little  grain 
to  fall  back.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  elevator,  which 
should  go  considerably  above  the  top  of  all  bins,  a 
trough  conveyor  should  be  hinged  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  can  be  swung  to  discharge  into  any  bin  in 
the  granary. 

When  the  grain  thresher  is  set  up,  ready  for  work, 
a  canvas  or  sheet  metal  spout  is  run  from  the  grain 
spout  of  the  separator  into  this  bin  under  the  floor 
and  the  grain,  as  it  is  discharged  from  the  machine,  is 
delivered  to  the  elevator  with  no  hand  work  what- 
.ever  and   with  the  least  exposure  to  threshing  floor 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  463 

dust.  At  least  two  men  are  saved  in  the  threshing 
crew  and,  thanks  to  the  gasoline  engine,  grain  is  de- 
livered directly  into  the  bins  without  carrying,  with- 
out hauling  and  without  bagging.  Not  even  tally- 
ing is  necessary.  The  bins  are  measured  and  the  exact 
amount  of  grain  determined  much  more  accurately 
than  in  the  case  of  ordinary  machine  measurements. 

575.  A  Tractor  Mower. — People  had  been  making 
use  of  mowing  machine  wheels  for  some  time  for 
tractor  drivers  before  it  occurred  to  some  one  that 
the  wheels  ought  to  answer  a  similar  purpose  if  power 
was  applied  to  them  wdiile  they  were  left  on  the  ma- 
chine. For  this  purpose  one  of  the  sprocket  and  chain 
drives  is  most  convenient  though  not  absolutely  nec- 
essary. Instead  of  the  tongue  a  pair  of  stout  culti- 
vator wheels  serve  the  double  purpose  of  steering  the 
machine  and  of  supporting  the  end  of  the  sills  upon 
which  the  engine  is  mounted.  The  mounting  should 
be  back  far  enough  to  throw  most  of  the  weight  on 
the  mower  wheels,  wdiich  are  the  drivers  of  the  tractor. 
The  pitman  frame  sustains  exactly  the  same  relation 
toward  the  sills  which  support  the  engine  that  it  for- 
merly did  to  the  tongue  of  the  machine,  and  is  sus- 
pended from  it  in  the  same  way. 

Between  the  engine  and  the  machine  a  counter- 
shaft should  be  placed.  This  should  carry  a  friction 
clutch ;  also  two  sprocket  wheels  speeded  respectively 
to  the  drive  wheel  of  the  machine  and  of  the  pitman. 
Aside  from  this  there  need  be  practically  no  change. 
The  mower  itself  is  fitted  with  the  differentials  and 
its  mechanism  remains  almost  exactly  as  it  was  ex- 
cepting for  the  removal  of  the  tongue  and  the  con- 
nection of  drive  wheel  and  pitman  each  independently 
to  countershaft  instead  of  with  each  other. 

In   operating,   the   engine   is  first   started   w^th   the 


464  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

clutch  thrown  off;  then  as  that  is  engaged  the  tractor 
part  of  the  machine  begins  to  operate,  the  gearing 
running  exactly  as  it  would  with  a  team  when  out  of 
gear.  The  cutting  gear  is  then  thrown  into  action. 
This  machine  has  several  advantages  over  one  that  is 
horse  drawn,  and  a  number  of  differences.  If  a  long 
grade  is  struck  the  engine  is  not  likely  to  gradually 
tire  out  and  slow  down  as  a  team  will.  If  it  does 
the  cutting  gear  will  not  begin  to  lag  at  the  same 
time  and  so  choke  down.  There  is  no  necessity  of 
stopping  to  rest  the  team  at  every  round  or  tAvo  and 
no  need  of  turning  out  before  noon  in  the  best  of 
haying  weather  because  the  sun  is  too  hot  for  work- 
ing horses  to  endure.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  more 
important  that  there  be  no  hidden  obstacles  in  the 
grass.  A  tough  stubble  or  small  stone  that  stops  the 
team  by  stopping  the  cutting  bar  probably  will  not 
check  the  engine.  If  the  knives  must  stop,  some- 
thing will  have  to  break  and  it  is  usually  some  part  of 
the  machine,  which  was  built  for  horses  only.  About 
the  only  remedy  for  this  is  greater  watchfulness  and 
cleaner  fields. 

576.  Two  Boys  and  a  Motor  Cycle. — There  has 
been  a  good  deal  of  doubt  expressed  about  whether 
a  gasoline  tractor,  light  enough  for  ordinary  plowed 
and  cultivated  fields,  could  ever  be  constructed  to  take 
the  place  of  a  horse-drawn  cultivator.  While  several 
successful  rigs  have  been  built  of  a  large  size  it  re- 
mained for  two  southern  boys  to  hit  upon  a  form  of 
cultivator  specially  adapted  to  garden  cultivating.  The 
machine  they  used  was  a  motor  cycle.  A  light  frame 
for  the  usual  cultivator  attachments  was  carried  be- 
fore the  front  wheels  and  then  sloped  back  along 
either  side,  the  width  of  cut  being  regulated  by  ex- 
panding or  drawing  together  the  outer  ends  of  these 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  465 

Avings  through  rods  and  levers  operating  between  the 
wheels  of  the  machine.  In  order  to  give  the  machine 
as  smooth  and  easy  a  path  as  possible  a  shovel  plow 
or  double  hoe  attachment  may  be  located  directly  in 
front  of  the  front  wdieel  and  a  smooth  furrow  with 
a  firm  bottom  opened  for  the  tractor  wheels  to  run 
in;  then,  if  desired,  this  trench  can  be  closed  by  a 
pair  of  disks  and  some  cultivator  teeth  following  the 
rear  wheel.  The  idea  doubtless  admits  of  some  im- 
provement, but  it  may  easily  prove  to  be  a  step  in 
the    right    direction    for    light    power    cultivators. 


Fig.  172.— Engine  Outfit  Easily  Moved  by  One  Man  Because  of 
Wheelbarrow  Truck. 

577.  Wheelbarrow  Energy. — Several  seasons  ago 
engine  makers  began  to  advertise  the  fact  that  two 
men  could  easily  pick  up  an  engine  capable  of  devel- 
oping several  horse-power  and  carry  it  where  it  was 
wanted.  The  weakness  in  this  w^as  the  fact  that  very 
often  the  engine  is  wanted  on  the  one-man  sort  of 
jobs ;  it  was  evident  that  some  means  was  needed  for 
one  man  to  convey  the  engine  from  place  to  place, 
so  it  was  mounted  upon  hand  trucks.  This  idea  had 
a  decided  advantage — and  a  drawback.     Rolling  sup- 


466  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

ports  invariably  add  to  unstability.  The  hand  trucks 
had  to  be  blocked  very  securely  or  they  would  show 
more  vibration  than  would  those  on  sills.  Some  bright 
mind  has  united  the  two  principles  in  the  wheelbarrow 
truck.  One  end  of  the  sills  under  the  engine  is 
mounted  on  small  wheels  and  have  their  lower 
corners  cut  away  so  as  to  clear  the  floor  easily  even 
though  the  diameter  of  the  wheels  is  less  than  the 
depth  of  the  sill.  The  other  ends  terminate  in  handles 
like  those  of  a  wheelbarrow.  Wljen  these  handles  are 
raised  and  the  weight  thrown  upon  the  end  supported 
by  the  wheels  the  engine  may  be  moved  about  by 
one  man  like  a  wheelbarrow.  When  the  handles  are 
let  down  the  deep  sills  raise  the  wheels  entirely  from 
the  floor  and  the  engine  at  once  rests  upon  sills — 
ready  for  business. 

578.  A  Unique  Fruit  Gatherer. — Who,  after  weary 
hours  of  climbing  up  and  down  a  ladder,  tugging 
baskets  of  apples  with  always  more  to  be  picked,  has 
not  yielded  to  temptation  or  ill-temper,  and  ended  the 
job  by  shaking  bushels  of  good  fruit  down  to  be 
picked  up  from  the  ground?  Of  course,  it  was  ruin- 
ous to  the  fruit,  but  after  the  hard  work  that  had  been 
endured  there  w^as  even  a  little  satisfaction  in  the  ruin. 
A  device  made  similar  to  a  set  of  horse  clippers,  but 
with  shorter  blade  and  wider  teeth,  may  reduce  both 
the  time  and  labor  of  hand  picking  and  at  the  same 
time  do  the  work  quite  as  well. 

The  blade  is  attached  to  the  engine  exactly  as  horse 
clippers  are  and  a  rod  secured  to  the  flexible  shaft. 
A  canvas  tube,  held  open  at  its  mouth  by  a  small 
hoop,  is  swung  to  the  rod  directly  below  the  blade. 
This  may  reach  to  the  ground  or,  better,  to  the  wagon 
in  which  the  engine  sets  and  that  will  be  used  to 
haul  the  fruit  from  the  orchard.     If  this  wagon  has 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  467 

been  fitted  out  with  tractor  power  the  same  engine 
which  supplies  the  power  can  be  used  in  picking  the 
fruit. 

The  operator  on  the  ladder  hooks  a  rod  at  one  end 
over  any  convenient  limb  and  the  other  into  some  part 
of  the  canvas  tube,  some  distance  down.  This  relieves 
him  from  the  weight  of  the  apparatus.  With  the  rod 
which  carries  the  blade  and  mouth  of  the  tube  he 
svv^ings  the  contrivance  here  and  there,  just  under  the 
fruit  and  as  rapidly  as  a  stem  is  touched  it  is  cut 
by  the  jaws  of  the  blade  which  are  driven  by  the 
motor  below,  the  fruit  falling  through  the  hoop  into 
the  canvas  tube,  whence  it  is  received  by  the  attend- 
ant in  the  wagon  below  and  sorted,  if  dry,  into  the 
regular  packing  barrels.  Not  only  does  this  save  all 
loading  and  nearly  all  climbing  up  and  down ;  it  also 
avoids  practically  all  handling  of  the  fruit  excepting 
the  one  placing  in  the  barrel.  The  canvas  bag  or  tube 
should  be  of  sufficient  length  to  admit  of  some  slack 
so  that  the  fall  of  the  fruit  will  be  retarded  by  fric- 
tion among  the  folds.  It  must  also  be  kept  constantly 
emptied  by  the  attendant  so  that  the  fruit  will  not  be 
bruised  by  contact.  While  a  device  of  this  sort  might 
seem  rather  trifling  for  operating  with  engine  power 
by  itself  it  is  no  more  so  than  the  shearing  of  sheep 
or  the  clipping  of  horses,  both  of  which  have  long 
been  done  with  the  help  of  power.  There  is  no  rea- 
son, however,  why  the  same  engine  should  not  at 
the  same  time  supply  the  tractor  power  for  moving 
the  wagon  about ;  also,  for  raising  the  ladder  and 
swinging  it  from  the  tree  while  the  wagon  was  shifted 
to  another  place.  In  fact,  about  all  the  lifting  that 
goes  with  the  harvesting  of  fruit  can  be  done  with 
a  gasoline  engine,  and  at  very  little  expense. 

579.     A  Home-made  Power  Saw. — As  an  example  of 


468         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

what  may  be  accomplished  by  one  possessing  mechan- 
ical ingenuity  and  the  ability  to  utilize  odds  and  ends, 
which  are  found  lying  around  any  farm,  the  tractor 
saw  outfit  depicted  at  Fig,  169  is  presented.  This 
machine  is  built  entirely  of  components  wdiich  had 
reached  the  end  of  their  usefulness  on  various  farm 
machines.  Common  header  binder  wheels  serve  as 
drivers,  while  the  front  end  is  supported  by  separator 
trucks  having  narrow  bands  shrunk  onto  the  rims  to 
prevent  side  slip.  The  differential  gear  is  on  the  rear 
axle,  which  revolves  in  babbitted  boxes.  The  counter- 
shaft is  directly  under  the  engine  base  and  a  chain  is 
employed  to  transmit  the  engine  power  from  the  coun- 
tershaft to  the  differential  sprocket.  A  jack  shaft, 
which  runs  lengthwise  of  the  frame,  receives  its  power 
from  a  single  pulley  on  the  rear  end  of  the  engine 
crank  shaft  and  drives  the  countershaft  by  a  bevel 
gear.  The  reverse  motion  is  obtained  in  a  very  in- 
genious manner.  Two  bevel  pinions  are  keyed  on 
the  jack  shaft  a  little  further  apart  than  the  diameter 
of  the  bevel  gear,  driving  the  countershaft,  which  in 
turn  drives  the  differential  sprocket.  If  the  jack  shaft 
is  moved  endwise,  so  the  back  pinion  engages  the 
bevel  gear,  the  machine  moves  backward  on  the  road, 
while  if  the  jack  shaft  is  shifted  backward  so  the  front 
pinion  engages,  the  forward  motion  of  the  tractor  is 
obtained.  A  short  belt,  six  inches  in  width,  drives  the 
jack  shaft  from  the  engine  pulley  and  a  jockey  pulley 
or  tightener  serves  the  purpose  of  a  clutch.  If  the 
jockey  pulley  is  moved  back,  so  that  the  belt  is  loose, 
the  engine  will  run  independently  of  the  road  wheels, 
whereas,  wdien  the  belt  is  placed  under  tension,  the 
engine  will  drive  the  conveyance.  The  frame  is  made 
of  round  wrought-iron  pipe  and  the  cooling  water  is 
pumped  through  it  so  the  frame  performs  the  func- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  469 

tion  of  a  radiator,  as  well  as  a  support  for  the  power 
plant.  The  saw  is  operated  in  connection  with  a  swing 
table  which  the  maker  considers  the  quickest  acting 
and  easiest  handled  form  of  saw  table.  The  engine 
is  adapted  to  use  kerosene  so  that  very  cheap  power 
is  provided.  A  machine  of  this  nature  may  be  dupli- 
cated by  anyone  having  the  patience  and  ingenuity  to 
contrive  and  sufficient  mechanical  ability  to  join  the 
various  parts  together  and  adapt  odds  and  ends  to  a 
useful  purpose. 

580.  Other  Home-made  Conveniences. — The  mak- 
ing of  ingenious  little  labor  saving  devices,  if  per- 
sisted in,  becomes  a  matter  of  demand  and  of  habit, 
rather  than  of  study.  The  occasion  will  supply  the 
desire  and,  with  that,  the  trained  hand  and  brain  soon 
find  a  way  of  accomplishment,  although  that  way 
may  not  be  exactly  the  same  with  any  two  different 
people.  As  surely,  too,  will  the  habit  of  applying 
power  and  mechanical  advantage  to  the  simplest  tasks 
grow  upon  one,  after  it  is  fairly  exercised,  until  the 
work  of  brute  force  and  animal  muscle  will  nearly 
all  of  it  be  replaced  upon  the  farm  as  elsewhere 
through  energy  which  originates  with  the  brain  and 
the  intelligent  directing  of  the  forces  that  nature  has 
placed  within  reach  of  our  hands. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 
MODERN    POWER    APPLICATIONS. 

581.  Helping  the  Binder. — Any  practical  farmer 
understands  that  the  bull  wheel  of  a  grain  harvester 
must  perform  two  duties ;  first,  carry  the  weight  of 
the  machine,  and,  second,  supply  the  power  required 


Fig.   173. — Small  Gray  Motor  Helping  the  Binder. 

for  operating  the  cutting,  elevating  and  binding  ma- 
chinery; and  it  is  this  second  operating  strain  that, 
more  than  anything  else,  causes  the  binder  to  choke 
down  and  sink  into  the  soft  earth,  when  the  ground  is 
wet  or  the  season  unfavorable.  Rarely  is  a  team 
stalled  with  a  binder  running  empty  or  when  the  bull 
wheel  is  merely  carrying  the  dead  weight  of  the  ma- 
chine.    Several  years  ago   much  of  the  grain  grow- 

470 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  471 

ing  section  of  the  west  became  a  veritable  quagmire 
on  account  of  heavy  rains,  and  the  grain  was  going 
down  and  shelling  badly.  Unless  saved  at  once,  thou- 
sands of  bushels  would  be  lost.  Team  power  enough 
to  drag  the  weight  of  the  binders  through  any  depth 
of  mud  could  be  supplied,  but  the  instant  the  machines 
were  thrown  into  gear  the  drive  wheel  would  slip  and 
refuse  to  turn. 

Someone,  desperate  at  the  prospect,  fastened  stout 
iron  brackets  to  the  rear  of  the  binder  frame  and  set 
a  light  gasoline  engine  on,  took  the  drive  chain  from 
the  binder,  connected  the  sprocket  drive  to  the  en- 
gine, turned  on  his  power  and  started  his  teams.  That 
idea  saved  the  world  many  thousands  of  bushels  of 
wasting  grain  that  season  and  the  same  idea  has  been 
in  operation  in  the  world's  great  grain  fields  annually 
ever  since.  Even  if  the  ground  is  solid  it  saves  one 
or  two  horses  out  of  each  team  and  makes  it  very 
much  easier  for  them.  It  is  also  easier  on  the  ma- 
chinery, as  the  motion  can  be  regulated  once  and  then 
kept  uniform.  There  is  no  slowing  down  of  the  cut- 
ting bar  in  tangled  spots  where  the  full  speed  is  most 
needed.  The  horses  are  not  worn  out  or  winded  at  the 
end  of  a  few  rounds.  If  there  happens  to  be  a  long 
hard  grade  they  do  not  in  addition  to  this  extra  work 
have  added  to  their  burden  the  extra  draught  from 
the  slower  motion  they  are  almost  certain  to  maintain ; 
nor  is  a  portion  of  the  grain  pulled  oiit  or  slid  over. 
The  work  can  be  done  much  faster,  too,  because  a 
wider  cut  machine  can  be  used  with  the  same  team, 
the  dead  weight  of  an  eight-foot  cut  being  very  little 
more  than  one  of  six. 

A  gasoline  engine  for  this  service  must  be  light 
and  smooth  running.  About  three  horse-power  is  gen- 
erally used,  and  an   engine  that  can   be   mounted  on 


472  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

brackets  behind  the  binder  or  even  set  upon  the  table 
is  best,  as  there  is  no  trouble  about  alignment.  Heav- 
ier engines  are,  however,  mounted  upon  light  trucks 
and  dragged  behind  as  trailers,  the  power  being  con- 
veyed to  the  binder  by  a  shaft  and  universal  joint. 
When  mounted  on  the  binder  they  are  usually  set 
directly  on  the  table  or  else  placed  between  the  bull 
wheel  and  the  beam  back  of  the  axle  and  are  con- 
nected with  a  chain  to  the  small  sprocket. 

In  1909  the  gasoline  engine  saved  several  million 
dollars  worth  of  grain  in  the  flooded  districts  of  the 
Missouri  river  valley  in  this  way.  On  account  of  their 
proven  value  in  this  field,  binders  are  now  being  de- 
manded, with  the  engine  supplied  as  a  regular  part 
of  the  binder,  but  detachable,  for  other  light  work 
when  needed. 

582.  In  the  Hay  Field. — A  light  power  engine  set 
upon  the  frame  of  a  mowing  machine  not  only  does 
the  same  thing  for  the  hay  harvest  that  it  will  do  on 
the  binder,  but  it  enables  the  ordinary  team  to  keep 
in  steady  operation,  with  little  or  no  time  wasted  in 
turning  corners  or  resting  at  the  end  of  the  swath. 
For  this  grade  of  work  a  sprocket  wheel  should  re- 
place the  usual  belt  wheel  on  the  engine  and  posi- 
tive chain  drive  be  used.  Very  little  change  need  be 
made  in  the  mower,  a  sprocket  wheel  being  intro- 
duced to  receive  the  drive  chain  and  the  regular  driv- 
ing gear  being  disconnected  from  the  drive  wheels 
of  the  machine.  The  engine  should  be  mounted  well 
back,  so  that  at  least  one-third  of  its  weight  will 
fall  back  of  the  machine  axle.  As  it  is  usually  neces- 
sary to  move  the  driver's  seat  back  a  little  his  weight 
in  its  new  position  will  generally  about  balance  the 
extra  weight  of  the  engine  so  there  will  be  no  added 
pressure  on  the  horses'  necks. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  473 

IMany  small  farms  have  been  deprived  of  the  use 
of  the  ]:ay  loader  for  no  other  reason  than  because  it 
is  too  heavy  for  a  single  light  team  to  handle  ex- 
cepting under  the  most  favorable  of  conditions.  A 
bracket  platform  hinged  at  one  end  to  the  under  side 
of  the  loader  at  its  base  and  supported  at  the  other 
end  by  small  wheels  forms  a  convenient  support  for 
the   ens^ine,   which   can   then   be   attached   to  the  ele- 


FiG.  174. — The  Motor  Truck  In  the  Hay  Field. 

vating  machinery  of  the  loader  and  the  pull  of  loading 
the  hay  be  transferred  from  the  team  to  the  engine. 

583.  Making  the  Spreader  Work. — The  manure 
spreader  is  also  a  forbidden  luxury  on  many  farms 
because  of  the  team  powder  it  requires,  although  in  all 
the  list  of  farm  machines,  the  gasoline  engine  alone 
excepted,  there  is  no  other  that  will  pay  for  itself 
more  certainly  and  readily.  The  work  of  the  spreader 
is,  however,  more  intimately  associated  with  that  of 
the  team  which  propels  it  than  of  the  binder  or  loader, 
there  being  no  part  of  it  that  can  be  operated  to  ad- 


474         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

vantage  independently  from  all  of  the  rest.  The  en- 
gine may  be  applied  to  one  or  more  wheels  as  a  tractor 
or  it  may  be  attached  to  the  spreader  mechanism 
only  and  through  the  medium  of  a  governor  pulley 
which  would  admit  of  the  engine  exerting  its  full  pull- 
ing capacity  and  at  the  same  time  guard  against  its 
being  overloaded  and  choked  dowm.  Once  started,  a 
three  or  four  horse  engine  will  take  off  so  much  of  the 
load  from  the  team  that  there  is  no  necessity  as  a 
rule  for  the  latter  to  stop.  With  a  little  care  on  the 
part  of  the  driver  the  team  and  engine  may  be  kept 
working  so  nearly  in  unison  that  neither  will  be  over- 
loaded and  the  advantage  of  the  spreader  will  in  this 
way  become  available  upon  thousands  of  farms  that 
are  now  getting  along  the  old,  hard  and  extravagant 
way. 

For  use  with  the  spreader  the  engine  should  be 
mounted  on  a  platform  at  the  extreme  front  end  of 
the  box  and  across  the  top,  so  as  to  be  above  all  the 
scatterings  that  might  otherwise  interfere  with  some 
part  of  the  engine,  or  the  connecting  gear. 

584.  The  Short  Power  Wagon. — It  is  the  experi- 
ence of  everyone  that,  while  an  ordinary  team  can 
haul  all  that  the  farm  wagon  should  be  expected,  as 
a  rule,  to  carry,  there  are  times  when  it  is  economy 
to  overtax  the  usual  capacities  of  the  farm  team. 
The  pull  may  be  over  good  roads  but  a  long  dis- 
tance ;  or  the  roads  may  be  too  heavy  for  a  team  to 
handle  enough  of  a  load  to  make  the  trip  justifiable; 
still,  it  may  have  to  be  made. 

The  gasoline  engine,  applied  as  a  tractor,  can  make 
possible  a  full  profitable  load  under  conditions  that 
would  otherwise  make  only  a  half  loaded  wagon  avail- 
able. It  will  also  supply  that  unflagging  energy  that 
will  enable  a  team,  without  undue  fatigue,  to  convey 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


475 


their  full  capacity  for  a  long  distance.  With  a  good 
driver  in  control,  the  engine  and  team  may  become 
valuable  supplements  of  each  other  and  do  work  to 
good  advantage,  that  neither  one  would  do  as  well 
alone.  Often  the  slippery  track  will  not  permit  the 
drive  wheels  to  hold  enough  to  take  the  wagon  on 
tractor  power  alone  when  a  very  little  help  from  the 
team  will   relieve  from  that  last  pound  of  pull   that 


Fig.    175. — The    Modern    Connecting    Link    Between    Farm    and 

Market. 


breaks  the  hold  of  the  wheel  lugs.  Often  even  a 
little  help  from  an  untiring  source  will  prevent  the 
team  from  wearing  out. 

Especially  in  going  to  market,  where  the  pull  is 
long  and  steady  rather  than  hard,  the  engine  will  en- 
able the  team  to  endure  a  load  that  could  not  other- 
wise be  taken  more  than  half  of  the  distance,  without 
cruelty  to  animals. 

585.  At  Threshing  Time. — All  energy,  unless  being 
continually  overtaxed,  is  judged  by  the  way  it  meets 
the  calls  of  emergency,  when  some  unusual  demand  is 
to  be  met.  The  farm  equipment  that  goes  smoothly, 
most  of  the  time,  may  be  found  seriously  wanting  at 


476 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  477 

such  unusual  times  of  stress  as  threshing  time  and 
may  have  to  draw  heavily  for  help  upon  the  resources 
of  the  surrounding  farms.  For  the  fully  equipped 
farm  only  a  little  of  this  is  necessary.  A  good  gaso- 
line engine  of  very  moderate  size,  but  well  managed, 
can  do  away  with  much  of  the  old  time  calls  upon  the 
neighborhood  and  make  each  farm  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
self-sustaining  in  the  matter  of  labor  equipment. 
Many  farms  of  the  future  will  have  each  their  own 
threshing  equipment  quite  as  certainly  as  they  now 
have  their  own  provisions  for  storing  their  own  hay. 
Stripped  of  its  portability  and  its  wholesale  capacity, 
the  grain  separator  is  not  nearly  so  complicated  nor 
so  expensive  as  the  binder  or  the  mowing  machine. 
When  one  is  found  built  into  every  barn,  the  grain 
will  be  hauled  from  the  field  and  unloaded  directly 
into  the  separator  without  any  intermediate  handling. 
Such  a  process  will  not  be  as  long  or  as  hard  as  the 
present  one,  for  both  grain  and  straw  will  be  elevated 
by  machinery. 

Even  with  our  present  day  system  of  neighborhood 
threshers,  the  gasoline  engine  can  be  made  to  take  the 
place  of  most  of  the  hands.  We  have  already  seen 
how  it  may  supplant  the  two  or  three  men  at  the 
grain.  The  modern  wind  stacker,  directed  into  a  tight 
mow  and  with  its  discharge  end  hung  to  a  pulley 
traveling  back  and  forth  along  a  steel  track,  can  be 
made  to  distribute  the  straw  well  over  the  mow  with- 
out much  attention.  With  the  help  of  the  engine, 
when  hauling  in  and  storing  the  grain,  the  mows  may 
be  so  located  that  gravity  may  again  be  utilized  to 
the  best  advantage  and,  by  means  of  sloping  floors, 
one  or  two  men  can  frequently  receive  at  the  foot  of 
the  slope  and  drop  into  a  conveyor  almost  every  sheaf 
in  the  mow.     Two  hands,  at  most,  would  be  ample 


478          The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

for  the  grain  sheaves.  The  gasoline  engine,  once  the 
sheaves  were  dropped  into  any  part  of  the  conveyor 
trough,  would  take  them  to  the  machine.  There  are 
mechanical  band  cutters  on  the  market ;  one  of  these, 
at  the  end  of  the  conveyor,  w^ould  dispense  with  an- 
other man.  In  all,  we  have  one  or  two  men  in  the 
mow  and  another  one  to  watch  the  operations  in  the 
stack  and  bins;  that  is  about  all  that  are  needed,  pro- 
viding all  the  possibilities  which  the  gasoline  engine 
makes  available  are  taken  advantage  of.  Let  anyone 
who  is  inclined  to  pronounce  such  arrangements  vi- 
sionary take  a  trip  through  any  other  kind  of  factory 
and  note  how  completely  even  the  most  trivial  oper- 
ations are  made  automatic  and  mechanical  before  he 
decides  that  it  is  impracticable  to  put  our  great  farm 
factories  upon  this  same  carefully  constructed  busi- 
ness basis. 

586.  Harvesting  the  Corn  Crop. — Because  silos 
and  corn  harvesting  by  machinery  are  of  such  com- 
paratively recent  origin,  we  have  had  fewer  old  pre- 
judices to  overcome  and  it  has  been  comparatively 
easy  for  people  to  adopt  methods  that  are  well  ad- 
vanced in  their  mechanical  perfection.  Already  we 
have  corn  harvesters  at  work  cutting  by  the  acre  as 
we  once  cut  by  the  hill,  and  we  have  them  operated 
by  gasoline  engines  both  in  the  form  of  tractors  and 
of  small  power  helpers  auxiliary  to  the  team.  We 
have  tractors  hauling  the  crop  from  the  field  after 
having  loaded  it  on  with  their  own  power.  We  have 
ensilage  cutters  with  self  feeders,  which  require  only 
a  little  hand  work  between  the  time  when  the  shocks 
are  taken  from  the  load  and  the  moment  when  they 
are  finally  deposited,  shredded  and  with  the  ears  sep- 
arated out  and  husked,  if  we  wish,  in  the  silo  or  the 
mow.      We   have    elevators   and   wagon    dumps   that 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  479 

will  deposit  the  husked  corn,  a  wagon  load  at  a  time, 
in  the  cribs.  We  have  shellers  to  shell  it  without  our 
once  touch'ng  it  by  hand,  and  mills  to  grind  it ;  or, 
if  we  wish,  it  may  go  to  the  mill  cob  and  all.  From 
the  time  the  seed  is  poured  into  the  planter,  until 
it  has  been  raised,  harvested,  ground,  fed,  and  con- 
verted into  beef,  it  is  necessary  for  the  human  hand 
to  come  in  contact  with  it  hardly  at  all.  Surely  this 
is  a  triumph  for  farming  machinery  along  this  one 
line,  which  ought  to  convince  the  most  skeptical  that 
equal  results  may  be  obtained  along  any  other.  But 
only  a  little  of  all  this  could  be  accomplished  without 
the  help  of  power — ^mostly  gasoline  power. 

587.  Hauling  by  Cable. — Before  the  days  of 
tractors,  hauling  and  even  plowing  by  cable  was  in 
common  use,  and  even  yet,  in  some  parts  of  the  world, 
it  is  resorted  to,  quite  a  little.  It  has  one  great  ad- 
vantage over  tractors,  the  difference  between  tractor 
and  draw-bar  efficiency  which,  in  the  case  of  most  en- 
gines, amounts  to  30%  or  40%  of  the  entire  efficiency 
of  the  engine.  Cable  hauling,  however,  like  coasting, 
has  certain  drawbacks  in  relation  to  the  profitless  and 
sometimes  difficult  "trip  back  up  the  hill."  Where 
the  engine  can  be  located  central  to  considerable  work 
and  within  reasonable  distance,  such  as  where  clear- 
ing off  a  piece  of  land  from  stumps  or  stones,  the 
cable  may  be  used  to  reasonable  advantage ;  but,  for 
ordinary  conditions  the  tractor,  though  it  uses  up  a 
good  deal  of  power  in  its  own  propulsion,  is  the  most 
economical  because  the  most  efficient ;  the  engine 
power  saved  by  the  cable  method  having  most  of 
it  to  be  made  up  by  the  extra  man  power  required 
in  the  handling  of  the  cable. 

588.  What  Gasoline  Is  Doing  to  the  Road  Ques- 
tion.— It    was    the    bicycle    first,   and    afterwards    the 


48o 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


o 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  481 

automobile,  that  impelled  the  recent  countrywide 
movement  for  better  roads.  A  little  sectional  feeling 
may  have  been  engendered  at  the  start  because  a 
few  city  people  out  for  pleasure  first  made  known  to 
the  world,  with  perhaps  unnecessary  criticism,  the 
discovery  that  the  country  roads  were,  some  of  them, 
bad ;  still,  the  farmer  w^as  not  long  in  deciding  that 
the  same  highway  condition  which  was  keeping  the 
city  pleasure  seeker  out  of  the  country  was  making 
the  distance  between  himself  and  his  markets  even 
more  objectionably  great,  because  his  use  of  the  roads 
was  largely  a  matter  of  business  instead  of  pleasure. 

Since  it  was  through  the  agency  of  gasoline  that 
this  great  problem  was  first  convincingly  presented, 
let  us  see  what  progress  gasoline  has  made  in  solving 
it. 

In  Bement  township,  Piatt  county,  Illinois,  which 
now  boasts  of  some  of  the  best  dirt  roads  in  the  state, 
a  45  H.  P.  gasoline  tractor  is  used  first  to  clean  out 
both  ditches  thoroughly  w^th  the  grader,  then  to  level 
and  crown  the  center  of  the  road  with  the  leveler,  and 
last  to  press  it  into  a  compact  surface  that  is  almost 
waterproof  by  going  over  it  with  a  6-ton  roller.  This 
is  done  at  a  cost  of  $2.40  a  day  for  coal  oil,  55c.  for 
gasoline,  $1.00  for  lubricating  oil  and  the  wages  of 
two  men ;  say  $8  in  all.  The  result  has  been  some 
of  the  finest  dirt  roads  in  the  state  of  Illinois,  35  feet 
from  gutter  to  gutter  and  from  16  to  20  miles  of  them 
completed  each  day.  Three  years  ago  these  same 
roads  were  often  all  but  impassable.  Now  the  only 
attention  they  require  is  an  ''occasional  leveling  after 
a  rain  to  maintain  their  crown." 

Comparing  these  results  with  those  obtained  by 
other  methods,  including  one  or  two  expensive  steam 
outfits,  the  road  commissioners  state  that  thev  have 


482         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

moved  more  dirt  in  two  years  with  the  gasoline  tractor 
and  have  accomplished  more  with  it  than  in  the  en- 
tire twenty  years  preceding.  Steam  power  they  de- 
clare to  be  much  more  expensive  in  wages,  fuel,  run- 
ning expenses,  and  wear  on  engine,  both  while  in  use 
and  specially  when  idle. 

589.  Fighting  Weeds. — For  those  highways,  the 
surface  of  which  is  unsuitable  for  road  making,  there 
are  gasoline  outfits  that  gather  up  the  loose  dirt  in 
the  roads  and  ditches  and  deposit  it  either  into  a 
wagon  driven  at  the  side  of  the  rig  or  at  the  side 
of  the  road  beyond  the  ditches.  This  not  only  disposes 
of  the  wash  from  the  ditches,  which  has  left  the  road 
bed  because  it  is  too  unstable  in  nature  to  be  of  use ; 
it  also,  in  part,  buries  and  discourages  the  weeds  and 
brambles  so  prone,  if  left  to  themselves,  to  come  up 
along  the  space  between  the  ditch  and  fence.  A  more 
important  weed-killer,  however,  is  found  in  the  spray 
pump,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  operated  best 
by  engine  energy ;  the  efficiency  of  the  work  against 
the  weeds,  without  injury  to  the  growing  grains  and 
grasses,  in  the  case  of  field  work,  depending  very 
much  upon  the  solution  being  applied  in  a  very  fine 
spray  driven  with  a  good  deal  of  force — at  least  100 
pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch  being  necessary 
at  all  times — and  with  enough  pumping  capacity  to 
distribute  from  a  barrel  to  a  barrel  and  a  quarter  per 
acre,  52  gallons  being  reckoned  as  a  barrel. 

In  preparing  the  solution,  too,  the  energy  of  the  en- 
gine is  of  direct  assistance,  especially  if  copper  sul- 
phate is  used  in  preference  to  iron  sulphate,  as  it  dis- 
solves with  greater  difficulty,  although  10  or  12  pounds 
of  it,  if  really  pure,  are  equal  to  perhaps  100  of  the 
iron  salt.  Where  horses  are  used  as  a  motive  power, 
it  is  customarv  to  take  on  a  barrel  or  two  of  the  pre- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  483 

pared  s(7iution  at  a  time  and  then  have  more  of  it  under 
preparation  with  hand  agitation  of  the  liquid,  at  dif- 
ferent points  of  the  field.  Where  help  is  scarce,  this 
is  not  always  convenient,  and  where  it  is  plentiful,  we 
still  have  another  case  of  using  intelligent  man  energy 
for  a  purely  mechanical  task  that  a  machine  would 
do  as  well  and  even  better.  With  the  tractor  a  lareer 
quantity  can  be  carried  without  an  overload  and  a 
couple  of  barrels  of  the  complete  solution  in  one  tank  ; 
in  the  other  the  same  amount,  in  process  of  prepara- 
tion, will  only  keep  the  tractor  moderately  busy;  the 
same  engine  that  carries  the  tanks  about  supplying 
the  pressure  for  spraying  and  running  the  agitator  in 
the  mixture  being  dissolved.  With  plenty  of  carry- 
ing powder,  a  third  or  reserve  tank  may  be  advantage- 
ously carried,  if  the  fields  are  large.  Then  as  soon 
as  one  tank  is  emptied  the  second  one  can  be  switched 
to  the  spray  nozzle  and  the  refilling  of  the  first  done 
ready  for  beginning  a  new  solution  without  having 
to  wait  until  the  stationary  water  supply  is  reached 
at  the  end  of  the  field.  By  this  means  both  of  the 
working  tanks  may  be  kept  supplied  w^ith  material 
for  their  respective  tasks  at  all  times  and  the  re- 
serve tank  replenished  at  the  convenience  of  the 
operator. 

Another  advantage  that  the  engine  sprayer  has  over 
one  driven  by  horse-power  is  the  fact  that  there  is 
no  animal  life  to  protect  against  the  effects  of  the  drift- 
ing spray.  Horses  used  in  spraying  must  be  kept 
closely  blanketed  and  even  then  are  more  or  less  ex- 
posed to  injurious  effects,  as  they  are  continually 
breathing  in  air  that  is  more  or  less  charged  with  a 
poisonous  mist. 

590.  Ditching. — In  a  good  many  places  tile  drain- 
age is  a  necessity  if  w^e  would  obtain  full   100%   re- 


484         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

suits ;  in  very  many  it  is  a  material  advantage.  Al- 
ways, though,  it  is  an  expensive  and  laborious  task, 
when  done  by  hand  labor.  Intelligent  workers  are 
specially  hard  to  get  at  a  reasonable  price  for  ditch- 
digging,  but  it  takes  a  certain  amount  of  intelligence 
to  finish  the  bottom  up  to  the  grade.  A  machine  will 
do  this  much  cheaper  and  with  far  more  uniform  re- 
sults. Gasoline  ditching  outfits  are  now  made  that 
not  only  dig  the  ditch  any  desired  depth,  but  at  the 
same  time  lay  the  tile  and  fill  up  the  trench  after 
themselves,  a  six  to  nine-foot  ditch  being  dug  by  some 
of  them  at  the  rate  of  120  feet  per  hour.  Under  spe- 
cially favorable  conditions  much  greater  results  have 
been  reported.  With  the  advent  of  cheaper  ditching, 
more  of  it  will  be  done,  many  acres  of  land,  that  has 
been,  hitherto,  untillable  or  only  partly  so,  will  be  re- 
claimed and  thousands  of  acres  will  be  sweetened  and 
rendered  more  productive  by  making  it  possible  to 
work  them  more  promptly  at  the  proper  seasons  and 
gaining  control  of  underground  moisture  conditions. 

591.  The  Farm  Roller. — Friction  is  the  great  en- 
ergy absorber  wherever  one  moving  body  comes  in 
contact  with  anything  that  supports  it  and  this  is 
quite  as  true  of  all  contact  with  the  earth  as  it  is  of 
journal  boxes  in  machinery.  In  just  the  same  way, 
too,  can  this  power  destruction  be  decreased  by 
smoothing  the  surfaces  at  the  points  of  contact.  While 
we  cannot  lubricate  the  track  of  the  binder  across 
the  field  as  we  can  its  bearings  for  the  axl^,  we  can 
decrease  to  a  very  great  extent  the  friction  strain 
by  rendering  the  road  under  the  wheels  as  firm, 
smooth  and  level  as  possible,  an  efficiency  of  any- 
where from  10%  up  to  60%  or  70%  being  possible 
in  this  way,  the  gain  depending  a  good  deal  on  the 
amount  of  necessity  for  it.     Of  all  known  implements 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  485 

of  the  farm,  the  roller  is  the  most  effective  in  doing 
this. 

Horse  drawn  rollers  have  a  number  of  drawbacks. 
In  the  first  place,  the  ground  that  is  mellow  enough 
or  soft  enough  to  respond  the  best  to  the  roller's  pres- 
sure is  just  in  the  right  condition  to  be  injured  by 
the  sharp-cutting  hoofs  of  the  team.  If  the  ground  is 
firm  enough  to  withstand  the  footmarks  of  the  horses 
it  requires  a  heavier  roller  than  the  ordinary  farm 
team  can  handle  to  do  the  work  in  a  really  thorough 
manner. 

Powder  driven  rollers  may  be  made  a  part  of  the 
power  plant  itself,  the  broad,  smooth  wheels  that  will 
entirely  cover  the  ground  the  tractor  covers  being 
substituted  for  the  usual  tractor  wheels.  Because 
of  the  broader  surface  pressed  upon  there  is  no 
sinking  below^  the  general  surface  level  in  spots  as 
in  the  case  of  a  horse.  Because  of  the  unlimited  horse- 
power that  may  be  turned  loose  in  a  tractor  there  is 
no  limit,  within  reasonable  efficiency,  to  the  weight 
that  can  be  brought  to  bear  directly  upon  tlie  ground 
to  be  rolled.  Where  tractor  farming  has  been  in  use 
for  some  time  the  fields  will  be  found  smoother  even 
without  the  rolling,  partly  because  of  the  continuous 
leveling  off  wdiich  traction  farming  insures  and  partly 
on  account  of  the  more  thorough  system  of  harrowing 
and  cultivating  all  the  plowed  fields  are  certain  to  be 
given  and  because,  in  order  to  get  the  work  done  at 
all,  the  ground  does  not  have  to  be  worked  out  of 
condition. 

592.  Sheep  Shearing. — Although  sheep  shearing  is 
not  generally  thought  of  as  one  of  the  heavier  tasks 
of  the  farm,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  are  few  others 
which  leave  the  operator  more  tired  when  night 
comes,    the    work    being    particularly    trying    on    the 


486  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

muscles  of  the  arm  and  wrist.  One  of  the  most  effec- 
tive and  inexpensive  sheep  shearing  outfits  ever 
brought  to  the  writer's  attention  was  constructed  by 
an  Ohio  farmer  and  consisted  of  a  i  H.  P.  gasoline 
engine  mounted  in  a  light  wagon  and  belted  to  the 
shafts  which  operated  two  horse  clippers.  Very  little 
alteration  was  needed  excepting  in  the  shape  of  the 
blades.  The  framework  which  supported  the  shearing 
arms  was  adjustable  and  could  be  readily  moved  to 
the  extreme  end  of  the  rig  when  in  operation  and  slid 
forward  to  the  center  of  the  buggy  box  when  on  the 
road.  The  entire  outfit  is  easily  hauled  about  with 
one  horse,  and  w^orking  full  capacity  it  uses  less  than 
a  gallon  of  gasoline  per  day. 

593.  In  the  Poultry  Yard. — In  the  poultry  yard, 
aside  from  the  usual  work  of  shelling  and  grinding 
feed,  the  uses  of  the  small  power  gasoline  engine  are 
numerous.  Bones,  instead  of  being  buried  or  burned 
or  thrown  about  the  place,  are  thrown  into  the  hopper 
of  the  cutter  and  reduced  to  good  poultry  tonic  by  the 
boys  of  the  place  for  the  fun  of  seeing  the  engine  go. 
The  straw  is  cut  into  short  lengths  and  clover  hay 
chaffed  into  meal.  Water  can  always  be  handy  and 
the  roosts  and  inside  of  the  building  kept  thoroughly 
sprayed  out  and  cleansed  and  disinfected.  Outside, 
the  whitewash  spray  pump  takes  the  place  of  the 
brush,  and  fills  the  crevices  better  besides  doing  it 
so  much  more  quickly  that  it  is  done  wnth  greater  fre- 
quency. Coops  and  all  parts  of  the  poultry  plant  will 
be  kept  in  better  repair  because  there  is  more  time  for 
it,  and  it  can  be  done  with  so  much  less  work. 

594.  The  Road  to  Market. — Aside  from  the  things 
we  eat,  the  value  of  what  the  farmer  produces  is  after 
all  finally  determined  largely  by  the  proximity  of  his 
markets  and  his  means  of  reaching  them.     Distance 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 


487 


1 

H 

1 

1 

1 

o 


488         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

alone  is  not  the  measure  of  remoteness.  An  im- 
briclged  river,  with  no  boat  at  hand,  might  cut  a  seri- 
ous amount  of  profit  off  from  produce  that  would 
have  a  high  commercial  rating  on  the  other  side  of 
the  stream.  The  stream  of  mud,  the  channel  of  im- 
passable roads  between  the  farm  and  its  nearest  mar- 
ket has  sometimes  been  an  equal  menace  to  profit ; 
but  now  that  the  mud  is  being  removed,  and  the  bad 
roads  in  some  measure  done  away  with,  actual  mileage 
distance  can  be  more  directly  reduced.  Even  this  the 
gasoline  engine  has  done  much  to  overcome. 

Taking  the  country  over  the  average  team  haul  of 
wheat,  to  place  it  on  the  market  is  9.4  miles,  at  a  cost 
per  ton  of  19c. ;  the  average  haul  of  cotton  has  been 
1 1.8  miles,  at  a  ton  mile  cost  of  27c.  After  a  limited  dis- 
tance the  cost  of  hauling  by  team  increases  rapidly,  as 
the  reasonable  endurance  limit  of  the  horse  is  ap- 
proached. The  cost  of  hauling  by  motor  decreases  with 
the  distance,  the  main  expense  being  the  handling  of 
the  load  at  either  end  of  the  trip.  On  the  road  the  cost  is 
very  slight.  This  fact  is  an  important  one,  both  to  the 
farmer  and  the  man  to  whom  he  sells,  because,  as  the 
population  of  the  cities  increases  faster  than  the  pro- 
ducing capacity  of  the  territory  around  them,  a  larger 
area  must  be  levied  upon  for  the  same  quantity  of 
supplies  for  each  person;  that  is,  the  haulage  distance 
is  becoming  greater.  It  has  now  outgrown  the  capac- 
ity of  the  horse  and  requires  that  of  some  other  power. 
To  a  great  extent  railroads  have  taken  and  will  con- 
tinue to  take  this  place ;  still  there  must  be  some 
means  of  connecting  even  the  local  station  with  the 
farm,  and  more  and  more  is  it  becoming  necessary  for 
the  farmer  to  handle  his  produce  in  the  most  economi- 
cal manner,  by  taking  it  in  larger  quantities ;  by  re- 
ducing the  time  required  for  each  trip. 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  489 

Again  the  gasoline  engine  has  met  this  new  farm- 
ing condition.  With  the  automobile  at  hand  the  road 
to  town  has  been  reduced  at  least  60  per  cent.,  or,  put 
in  another  way,  the  area  of  farming  land  now  within 
reasonable  market  distance  from  the  city  is  increased 
from  four  to  eight  times.  In  the  matter  of  truck  farm- 
ing alone  the  average  haul  was  formerly  3  miles,  a 
total  acreage  of  28.26  square  miles.  Improved  roads 
finally  raised  the  average  haul  to  6  miles,  and  threw 
open  to  each  market  an  available  area  of  112.9  square 
miles.  In  these  same  good  road  communities  the 
automobile  has  considerably  more  than  doubled  this. 

The  above  facts  are  considerably  modified  by  the 
additional  truth  that,  while  only  80  years  ago  but  4 
per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  lived 
in  cities,  that  percentage  has  now  increased  to  over  40 
per  cent.  This  means  a  smaller  proportion  of  agri- 
cultural producers ;  about  30  to  every  100  inhabitants, 
as  against  a  former  96  out  of  100.  The  demand,  then, 
is  extending,  and,  while  the  average  production  per 
acre  has  also  increased,  the  necessary  hauling  dis- 
tance, the  territory  that  must  be  levied  upon  by  each 
trade  center,  has  been  extended,  from  the  capacity  of 
the  horse  to  that  of  the  automobile  and  the  motor  car. 
Through  good  roads  the  cost  per  ton  mile  of  horse 
haulage,  as  has  been  proved  by  experiment,  may  be 
reduced  to  lOc.  but  the  cost  of  the  same  for  a  motor 
car  is  already  only  3c.  over  good  roads,  a  difference 
of  $840  per  1,000  tons  of  country  produce  delivered, 
to  be  divided  between  producer  and  consumer,  figur- 
ing on  a  twelve-mile  haul. 

595.  Building  Home  Memories. — "My  recollections 
of  the  farm,"  declared  a  successful  merchant  several 
years  ago,  "consist  of  going  barefooted  through  the 
frosty  grass  along  about  daylight  after  the  cows ;  in 


490         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

having  to  carry  the  wash  water  up  a  steep  hill  from 
the  spring  before  breakfast,  in  order  to  get  time  for 
gathering  sheaves  after  the  cradlers  and  binders  in 
the  stubbly  grain  field  the  rest  of  the  day^  of  hav- 
ing to  go  out  after  supper  for  another  load  of  hay, 
and  then  of  hunting  up  the  cows  again  and  helping 


Fig.    179. — Home   ^Memories. 

to  milk  them  until  after  bedtime  :  of  seeing  my  mother, 
sober-faced  and  weary,  dragging  herself,  day  after 
day,  about  the  house  with  her  entire  life  centered  upon 
the  drudgery  of  her  kitchen  and  all  the  rest  of  the 
world  a  closed  book  to  her;  of  seeing  my  father, 
broken  down  with  long  hours  and  hard  work,  finally 
relieved  of  the  task  of  paying  for  the  old  place — just 
a  few  months  before  he  died.  I  know  that  those  early 
discouragements  hardened  me  to  meet  those  I  have 
since  met;  that  the  strenuous  life  I  lived  in  my  child- 
hood did  much  to  fit  me  out  with  habits  of  industry 
that  have  brought  me  success — that  it   equipped  me 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  491 

with  a  bitter  prejudice  and  an  intense  hatred  of  farm 
life.  I  know  that  the  conditions  there  are  different 
now,  but  my  whole  life,  in  spite  of  that,  has  been 
shadowed  in  a  measure  by  certain  mempries  which  I 
cherish,  against  my  will,  of  the  old  farm.  The  man 
or  woman  who  has  been  deprived  of  sweet  home  mem- 
ories in  childhood  has  missed  the  best  of  life,  and  I 
still  hate  the  farm  for  so  depriving  me." 

That  merchant  was  right  and  wrong;  wrong  in 
permitting  a  prejudice  to  distort  the  experience  of  an 
individual  into  a  type  condition ;  right  in  the  extent 
to  which  old  home  memories  may  exert  their  influence 
and  teach  their  lessons  long  after  the  home  itself  has 
nothing  left  but  memory.  No  material  results  can 
ever  equal  the  far-reaching  influences  they  may  be 
made  to  wield  upon  the  man  or  w^oman  all  through 
life,  if  rightly  exerted  upon  the  child.  Is  not,  then, 
all  that  will  help  materially  in  elevating  those  home 
memories,  in  lifting  them  out  from  the  slums  and 
ditches  of  drudgery  more  potent  in  the  uplifting  of 
the  child  than  any  material  wealth  that  we  can  give 
him?  So  long  as  prejudice  endures,  the  industrial 
status  of  farming  will  be  judged  by  its  influence  upon 
the  memories  of  our  young  people — whether  it  leaves 
with  them  impressions  of  a  drudgery  that  is  little 
above  that  of  the  animals  of  the  field,  or  whether 
the  recollections  are  linked  up  with  intelligent  appli- 
cation, a  busy  life,  perhaps,  but  one  wherein  the  su- 
perior brain  power  which  has  been  given  to  the  human 
race  is  not  degraded  into  sheer  brute  force.  On  these 
old  memories  depends  not  only  the  industrial  choice 
of  the  boy,  but  the  respect  of  the  man  for  farm  work, 
country  life,  and  the  old  home  ;  and  no  other  single 
phase  of  the  standing  of  agriculture  in  the  world  of 
industry  so  surely  determines  her  place  in  the  realm 


492         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

of  intelligence  as  does  the  story  of  the  power  that 
turns  her  wheels  ;  whether  it  be  expressed  in  terms  of 
brute  force  or  intelligence ;  of  animal  muscle  or  of  that 
greatest  achievement  of  the  human  race — mechanical 
power. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE  IDEAL  FARM. 

596.  A  Look  into  To-morrow. — It  does  not  seem 
inappropriate,  even  in  a  semi-technical  work,  this 
hasty  glimpse  at  the  ethical  side  of  life,  when  we 
consider  that  it  is  a  legitimate  feature  of  all  life  of 
which  the  farmer  no  longer  has  occasion  to  be  de- 
prived. The  yesterdays  of  agriculture  were  days  of 
toil  and  patient  effort ;  those  of  to-morrow,  we  who 
have  faith  in  her  believe,  will  be  days  of  achievement. 
One  of  the  most  coldly  practical  problems  of  to-day, 
then,  is  best  answered  by  a  brief  study  of  the  path 
directly  ahead.  Along  what  industrial  lines  may  w^e 
best  advance ;  what  use  shall  we  make  of  this  new 
mechanical  force — power? 

597.  Summary  of  the  Complete  Farm  Home. — 
Somewhere,  looking  into  the  future,  we  can  see,  in- 
stead of  the  overworked,  heat-tortured  horses  of  the 
past,  a  vision  of  unwearying  engines  drawing  behind 
them  the  most  efficient  weapons  of  conquest  in  the 
world's  battle  for  bread  which  the  world's  best  brains 
can  produce,  the  speed,  the  depth  of  culture  ;  the  best 
mechanical  aids  to  plant  growth  that  can  be  produced, 
without  regard  to  capacity  limits,  and  only  consider- 
ing highest  efficiency.  Season  conditions  will  count 
for  little,  because,  with  the  forces  in  hand,  the  man 
work  of  weeks  may  be  done  in  a  day,  perhaps  in  an 
hour.  No  form  of  mechanical  efficiency,  whether  it 
be  deeper  cutting,  more  complete  ])ulverization,  or  a 

493 


494         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

more  thorough  mixing  of  air  with  every  grain  of  earth, 
will  be  lacking.  The  factory  of  yesterday  and  of  to- 
day, so  perfectly  equipped  to  the  finest  details  in 
quickly,  cheaply,  and  effectively  carrying  out  every 
constructive  process  that  requires  to  be  done  in  the 
conversion  of  raw  material  into  the  finished  loaf  or 
fabric,  will  just  as  effectively  to-morrow  perform 
every  needed  operation  in  converting  the  elements  of 
the  earth  and  air  into  her  useful  products.  The  one 
constructive  word  of  the  future  will  be  efiiciency,  in- 
stead of  capacity,  on  the  farm  as  elsewhere.  Greater 
and  better  crops  will  be  raised,  and  raised  more 
cheaply,  because  the  soil  will  be,  not  once,  but  always 
put  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  feeding  plant 
growth.  The  climatic  and  weather  accidents  of  agri- 
culture will  exert  no  more  important  influence  upon 
the  output  of  the  farm  than  of  the  factory.  A  com- 
plete system  of  drainage  will  remove  the  terrors  of 
excess  rainfall.  Irrigation  will  guard  against  danger- 
ous droughts.  Frosts  will  be  controlled,  insect  pests 
conquered,  fungus  diseases  overcome,  most  of  them, 
perhaps,  through  the  pumping  systems  of  to-day — and 
of  to-morrow — all  made  possible  only  through  this 
general  application  of  limitless  power. 

The  harvests  will  also  be  under  the  most  complete 
control ;  the  reaping,  the  gathering  in,  under  the  best 
of  mechanical  conditions ;  the  separating  of  the  grain 
from  the  chaff ;  the  conversion  of  each  to  its  own  most 
efficient  use ;  the  conservation  of  it  all  with  chemical 
exactness.  Because  of  available  power  the  seed  bins 
that  are  filled  with  grain  that  is  faultless  will  be  the 
rule.  Because  of  the  better  developed  and  better  used 
cleaning  machinery  the  crops  of  the  field  will  supply 
very  little  that  is  weeds  or  waste.  The  balanced  ra- 
tion   will    be    the    rule    instead    of   the    exception ;    it 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  495 

will  insure  a  richer  production  of  milk  and  of  butter 
fat  which  engine  driven  mechanism  will  work  up  to 
the  last  degree  of  food  efficiency. 

In  the  house,  as  in  the  fields  and  barns,  this  glimpse 
into  the  future  shows  equal  changes.  Work  is  not 
eliminated — who  would  wish  it — but  it  is  made  to 
produce  a  higher  degree  of  efficiency,  and  without 
sacrifice  of  the  intellectual  and  the  ethical  side  of  life. 
The  tasks  of  the  day  will  be  of  a  nature  that  w^ill  ex- 
pand, broaden.  Life  will  be  uplifted  by  them  to  a 
higher  plane  instead  of  feeling  that  constant  tugging 
downward  to  a  level  with  animal  life.  Effort  will 
mean  achievement  and  duty  growth ;  growth  not  alone 
of  the  biceps  or  the  pocketbook,  but  mind  growth, 
soul  growth,  greater  wealth  of  independent  thought, 
a  working  out  along  those  lines  of  inspiration  that,  in 
the  fetters  of  yesterday's  drudgery,  were  merely  air- 
castles  ;  that  in  the  atmosphere  of  this  new  inspira- 
tion become  the  true  ideals  of  hope  for  us  to  work  out. 

598.  How  the  Gasoline  Engine  Makes  It  Possible. 
— How  does  the  gasoline  engine  make  this  possible? 
By  intelligent  work;  by  releasing  us  from  the  fetters 
of  muscular  limits.  With  the  constant  grind  of  get- 
ting the  most  pressing  tasks  done  as  well  as  the  cir- 
cumstances will  permit  removed,  there  comes  in  its 
place  a  new  pride  in  reaching  out  toward  the  very 
best  results  that  can  by  any  possibility  be  attained. 
The  soul-killing  contest  with  hard  necessity  will  be- 
come a  spirited  rivalry  with  progress,  a  desire  to  test 
her  every  possibility.  Animal  life  considers  only  the 
ways  and  means  of  getting  a  living.  Intellectual  lives 
are  constantly  concerned  in  getting  the  best  possible 
values  out  of  life,  the  values  weighed  by  constantly 
broadening  standards  and  the  best  moral  ideals. 

599.  When    Dreams    Come    True. — It    is    the    old 


496         The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

story  of  the  man  with  the  hoe  against  the  man  with 
the  automobile.  The  ideals  of  the  one  are  controlled 
by  the  limiting  capacities  of  his  owui  physical  endur- 
ance ;  those  of  the  other  are  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  world's  possibilities  which  are  stretched  before 
him,  and  the  world  constantly  widens  out  to  him  as  he 
advances.  To  the  man  in  the  ditch  the  sunset  tells 
only  a  story  of  supper-time  and  another  completed 
day  of  toil.  To  the  man  who  directs  him  it  brings 
glimpses  of  eternal  beauty — lifts  him  into  a  new  life 
of  ethical  enjoyment — out  of  his  own. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 
TABLES   AND    FORMULAS. 

600.  Electrical  Terms  Defined. — Water  is  readily 
compared  in  much  of  its  behavior  with  air,  steam, 
and  other  invisible  vapors  and  gases.  For  purposes 
of  explanation  it  may  be  considered  in  connection  with 
another  kind  of  invisible  fluid,  electricity ;  at  least  the 
exact  meaning  of  some  of  the  arbitrary  terms  used  in 
electrical  measurements  may  be  more  easil}^  under- 
stood by  a  comparison  with  the  better  known  quali- 
ties and  measurements  of  water. 

The  Volt. — The  tendency  of  water  to  rush  out  from 
the  end  of  a  pipe  which  conducts  it  from  an  elevated 
tank  to  some  lower  level  depends  upon  the  pressure 
of  the  column  of  water  behind  it  and  we  speak  of  it 
as  so  many  pounds  pressure.  The  tendency  of  the 
electric  fluid  to  rush  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  potential 
— that  is,  to  equalize  the  two — we  measure  and  speak 
of  as  so  many  volts  pressure,  meaning  much  the  same 
thing  that  we  mean  by  pounds  pressure  in  the  other 
case.  The  volt  is  the  electrical  term  denoting  meas- 
urement of  pressure  or  intensity. 

The  Ampere. — If  the  end  of  the  pipe  were  left  open 
the  water  would  not  all  be  able  to  escape  at  once,  but 
would  have  a  rate  of  flow  which  would  depend  upon 
the  size — that  is,  the  carrying  capacity — of  the  pipe 
and  the  pressure  back  of  it.  The  electrical  fluid  also 
has  its  rate  of  flow  through  an  electrical  conducting 
medium,  say  a  wire,  to  the  measuring  unit  of  which 

497 


498  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

we  apply  the  term,  not  of  gallons  but  of  amperes. 
The  ampere  is  the  electrical  term  denoting  the  unit 
for  measuring  the  rate  of  flow  in  the  electrical  current. 

The  Ohm. — No  more  than  a  certain  quantity  of 
water  per  minute  wall  pass  through  a  pipe  of  given 
size  so  long  as  the  pressure  is  the  same,  but  by  in- 
creasing the  elevation  of  the  tank  or  by  closing  its 
top  and  forcing  air  or  steam  into  it  or  by  increasing 
the  pressure  in  any  way,  we  can  force  a  greater 
amount  of  water  through  by  increasing  the  rate  of 
flow.  This  proves  that  there  has  been  a  certain 
amount  of  resistance  to  the.  flow  wdiich  the  greater 
pressure  in  some  measure  overcomes.  That  resist- 
ance is  most  of  it  friction.  There  is  also  a  resistance 
to  the  flow  of  the  electric  current  through  the  wire 
which  we  measure  and  speak  of  as  so  many  ohms 
resistance.  The  ohm  is  the  unit  with  which  we  meas- 
ure the  resistance  or  friction  of  the  electrical  current. 
The  resistance  to  the  water  depends  upon  the  size  and 
the  shape  of  the  pipe.  The  pressure  behind  it  de- 
termines how  rapidly  it  will  be  overcome.  The  resist- 
ance to  the  electric  current  depends  upon  the  size  and 
the  nature  of  the  w^ire,  some  kinds  of  material  present- 
ing more  electrical  resistance  or  friction  than  others. 
How  that  resistance  is  overcome  depends  also  upon 
the  pressure  behind  the  current.  The  size  and  length 
of  the  pipe  and  of  the  wire  influence  the  amount  of 
resistance  in  both  cases.  The  ohm  then  is  the  elec- 
trical measurement  unit  of  resistance. 

The  Watt. — When  the  water  flows  from  the  pipe 
against  a  wheel  its  force  enables  it  to  turn  the  wheel 
or  do  work.  The  amount  of  this  force  depends  upon 
the  quantity  of  water  being  discharged  and  the  rate 
at  which  it  is  flowing.  We  often  speak  of  this  energy 
in   terms   of  horse-power.     Wlien   electricity   is   con- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm         499 

ducted  against  some  mechanical  device  which  it 
moves  we  measure  this  working  energy  in  terms  of 
the  watt.  It  depends  upon  the  quantity  and  rate  of 
electrical  flow,  as  in  the  case  of  water.  The  watt  is 
the  unit  of  electrical  energy  and  is  the  product  of  the 
volt  and  the  ampere. 

601. — Mutual  Relation  of  These  Measurements. — 
These  units  of  electrical  measurement  have  certain 
fixed  relations  with  each  other  as  well  as  with  non- 
electrical measurement  units.  The  volt  is  the  force 
required  to  send  one  ampere  of  current  through  one 
ohm  of  resistance.  The  ampere  is  the  current  which 
one  volt  can  send  through  one  ohm  of  resistance.  The 
ohm  is  the  resistance  which  one  ampere  meets  when 
impelled  by  one  volt  of  force. 

One  electrical  horse-power  is  equal  to  746  watts. 
One  thousand  watts  make  one  kilowatt,  which  is  equal 
to  about  I  1-3  horse-power.  This  is  the  standard  unit 
of  measure  applied  to  the  dynamo. 

From  the  above  units  it  is  possible  to  make  most 
of  the  calculations  needed  either  in  gasoline  engine 
ignition  or  in  the  electrical  equipments  which  have 
been  described  as  direct  outgrowths  of  engine  con- 
veniences. The  volts  multiplied  by  the  amperes  give 
the  number  of  watts,  which  in  turn  can  be  reduced  to 
terms  of  horse-power  or  of  kilowatts,  always  remem- 
bering that,  owing  to  friction,  resistance  of  wires,  etc., 
it  requires  more  than  a  i  1-3-horse-power  engine  in 
practice  to  drive  a  kilowatt  dynamo. 

The  ordinary  i6-candle-power  carbon  filament  lamp 
requires  about  50  watts.  The  15-watt  (low  voltage) 
tungsten  lamp  gives  about  12  candle-power  and  the 
25-watt  lamp  20  candle.  Most  small  residence  light- 
ing plants  are  run  at  30  volts.  Fifty  12-candle-power 
tungsten  lamps  can  be  operated  with  a  2-horse-power 


500          The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

engine  at  a  cost  of  little  more  than  5  cents  per  hour 
for  fuel.  If  not  charged  with  more  than  its  rated 
voltage  a  lamp  should  be  good  for  from  600  to  1,000 
hours. 

602.  The  Fire  Hazard. — Fire  insurance  companies 
were  inclined  at  the  first  to  be  unreasonably  exacting 
in  relation  to  all  things  using  gasoline,  in  part  per- 
haps because  the  nature  of  the  fluid  is  so  generally 
not  understood.  They  have  had  to  relent  in  regard  to 
the  use  of  stoves.  They  are  relenting  toward  gaso- 
line engines,  because  the  general  pressure  is  so  great 
that  they  must  either  come  with  the  popular  move- 
ment or  be  left  behind.  Some  general  rules  of  instal- 
lation have,  however,  very  properly  been  adopted  by 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  which  every 
gasoline  engine  owner  ought  to  read  and  observe.  A 
copy  can  be  obtained  of  any  fire  insurance  agent. 
The  substance  of  the  more  important  rulings  is  here 
given. 

Location  of  Engine  should,  if  possible,  be  on  ground 
floor;  if  a  wooden  floor,  24  inches  outside  of  engine 
must  be  protected  by  metal.  In  shops  containing 
dust  and  inflammable  material  the  engine  must  be 
enclosed  in  fire-proof  compartment,  opening  to  outer 
air  at  floor  and  ceiling. 

Supply  Tank  underground,  if  possible ;  at  least  be- 
low level  of  lowest  feed  pipe  and  30  feet  or  more  from 
building;  or  tank  may  be  in  fire-proof  ventilated  vault 
or  building  with  tank  below  level  of  lowest 
pipe. 

Piping  shall  be  as  direct  as  possible,  with  tested 
pipe  only,  and  both  feed  and  overflow  pipe  sloping  so 
gasoline  will  all  drain  back  into  tank.  Pipes  must 
not  be  in  trench  occupied  by  other  piping  and  open- 
ings  through   walls   for   their   admission   shall  be   se- 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  501 

curely  sealed,  water  and  oil  tight.  Vent  and  fill  pipes 
jacketed  to  prevent  freezing. 

Muffler  on  a  firm  foundation  at  least  one  foot  from 
all  combustible  material. 

Exhaust  Pipe  must  extend  outside  building  and  6 
inches  or  more  from  combustible  material.  If  car- 
ried through  floor  or  partition,  surround  with  metal 
thimble  at  least  6  inches  bigger,  the  vertical  section 
through  floor  covered  with  fire-proof  covering.  It 
must  not  discharge  into  chimney. 

Care  and  Attention. — Cylinder,  valves  and  exhaust 
pipe  to  be  cleaned  as  often  as  fuel  renders  necessary. 

Electric  Wiring  Rules. — A  set  of  rules  regarding  the 
construction  of  gasoline  engines  is  also  issued  and  a 
list  of  all  those  engines  approved  by  the  Association 
of  Underwriters  also  has  quite  an  extended  code  of 
rules  relating  to  the  electric  wiring  of  buildings,  only 
a  small  part  of  which  are  digested  here.  When  ob- 
served, they  render  electric  lighting  much  safer  than 
ordinary  lamps. 

Nothing  smaller  than  No.  14  wire  allowed  except 
for  fixtures  and  pendent  lamps.  Joints  must  be  me- 
chanically perfect  and  then  soldered.  Wire  must  not 
be  laid  in  plaster  or  cement.  Side  wall  wire  must  be 
protected  by  boxing  or  iron  conduit  5  feet  above  floor ; 
floor  wires  must  have  similar  protection,  an  inch  air 
space  all  around  wire  in  boxing  being  required.  The 
maximum  current  allowed  a  rubber  insulated  No.  14 
wire  is  12  amperes,  or  16  with  other  insulation;  No. 
12  wire  permits  17  and  2^,  respectively,  and  No.  10, 
24  and  32  amperes.  All  wires  must  be  insulated  ac- 
cording to  approved  specifications.  Where  passing 
through  walls,  partitions,  floors  or  timbers,  they  must 
be  carried  in  porcelain  or  glass  bushings  which  reach 
entirely  through.     No  wire  shall  be  permitted  nearer 


502  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

than  one  inch  to  metallic  or  other  electrical  conductor 
without  being  threaded  through  porcelain  or  glass  or 
with  some  non-conducting  or  non-absorbing  material 
between.  Many  special  rules  in  relation  to  "con- 
cealed" wires,  etc.,  and  applying  to  all  conceivable 
cases  make  it  advisable  for  those  who  have  much 
electric  wiring  to  do  to  obtain  a  copy  of  the  rules  in 
full.  In  motor  wiring  underwriters  have  a  general 
rule  requiring  all  motor  leads  to  have  a  carrying  cur- 
rent capacity  of  25  per  cent,  more  than  the  full  load 
rating  of  the  motor,  even  though  the  full  load  is  sel- 
dom given. 

603.  Fire  Fragments. — In  case  of  a  gasoline  fire 
don't  use  water.     Use  sand,  sawdust,  earth  or  flour. 

In  case  of  a  kerosene  fire  don't  use  water.  Use  the 
same  as  for  gasoline. 

In  case  of  an  alcohol  fire  USE  water  freely.  It 
unites  with  the  alcohol  at  once. 

If  the  clothing  should  catch,  do  not,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, run  downstairs  or  out  of  doors.  The 
first  will  bring  the  flames  about  the  head,  and  the  sec- 
ond will  fan  them  into  greater  life.  Lie  down ;  wrap 
closely  in  heavy  rugs,  blankets,  or  carpets.  Keep  the 
head  down  constantly,  as  all  flames  tend  to  shoot  up- 
ward, and  the  most  immediate  danger  is  from  inhaling 
them. 

If  the  engine  room  or  building  gets  on  fire  keep 
cool ;  keep  doors  and  windows  shut.  If  caught  inside, 
keep  near  the  floor  and  get  to  a  window  at  once.  At 
all  events,  keep  as  far  away  from  the  gasoline  supply 
as  possible. 

604.  Heat  Values. — A  British  thermal  heat  unit 
(B.  T.  U.)  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 
one  pound  of  pure  water  one  degree  Fahrenheit  at  or 
about  39  degrees.     Like  all  other  standards  of  weight 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  503 

and  measure  it  is  a  purely  arbitrary  term  used  for  the 
unit  with  which  we  compare  and  measure  heat. 

I  B.  T.  U.  equals  778  foot-pounds. 

I  H.  P.  equals  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute. 

Therefore  i  H.  P.  equals  42.42  B.  T.  U.  per  minute; 
that  is,  33,000  divided  by  778. 

Of  the  more  common  engine  fuels  gasoline  contains 
from  18,000  to  22,000  B.  T.  U.  per  pound,  gasoline 
vapor  the  same,  petroleum  from  18,000  to  20,000. 

605.     Thermal  Efficiency. 

Heat  converted  into  work 25  per  cent. 

Heat  lost  through  walls  and  cooling  sys- 
tem      50         " 

Heat  lost  through  exhaust 15         *' 

Heat  lost  through  friction  10         " 


100 


The  average  thermal  efficiency  of  gas,  gasoline  and 
oil  engines  is  around  20  per  cent.,  and  the  reasonable 
range  from  10  to  2J  or  28.  The  real  efficiency  of  use- 
fulness can  be  somewhat  increased  by  utilizing  the 
waste  heat  for  other  purposes,  but  seemingly  not  at 
present  in  the  engine. 

The  thermal  efficiency  of  the  ordinary  steam  engine 
is  seldom  more  than  12  per  cent.,  excepting  as  use 
can  be  made  of  the  exhaust  steam.  Triple-expansion 
steam  engines  using  steam  pressure  of  200  pounds  per 
square  inch  or  more  sometimes  reach  nearly  or  quite 
25  per  cent,  of  thermal  efficiency. 

606.  Horse-power  Formulae. — To  compare  four- 
cycle engines. — Square  the  diameter  of  the  piston  in 
inches,  multiply  by  the  number  of  cylinders,  the 
length  of  stroke  in  inches,  the  revolutions  per  minute,, 
and  divide  by  16,000. 


504    .      The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

Rule  of  the  Royal  Auto  Club. — Add  the  diameter  to 
the  length  of  stroke,  square  the  sum,  multiply  by 
number  of  cylinders  and  divide  by  9.92. 

Another  rule. — Multiply  the  radius  (half  the  di- 
ameter) of  the  cylinder  by  the  stroke,  then  by  3.1416 
or  3  1-7.  This  gives  the  total  cubic  inches.  Divide 
by  10  for  horse-power. 

Another. — Square  the  diameter,  multiply  by  stroke, 
then  by  number  of  cylinders ;  then  divide  by  12. 

By  working  out  these  different  formulae  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  is  quite  a  wide  discrepancy  in  results. 
The  only  really  trustworthy  test  is  the  brake  test,  and 
even  that  is  only  relatively  accurate. 

607.  The  Brake  Test. — A  home-prepared  brake 
test  may  be  rather  easily  applied  by  fastening  twine 
or  rope  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  be  wound  up  like  a  windlass.  This 
may  be  done  by  rigging  an  extension  of  the  shaft 
beyond  the  fly  wheel.  The  twine  should  be  free  from 
knots  and  should  be  lowered  out  of  an  upper  window 
of  the  barn  or  some  high  place  in  which  a  pulley  can 
be  fastened  for  the  string  to  run  in.  At  the  lower  end 
a  weight  is  attached  that  will  just  cause  the  motion  of 
the  engine  to  slack  down  but  still  continue  to  run. 
Note  the  exact  position  of  weight  and  accurately  note 
the  time  in  which  this  weight  is  wound  up  to  the 
point  from  which  it  is  suspended,  then  measure  the 
distance  it  is  raised.  Multiply  the  weight  by  the  dis- 
tance it  has  been  raised  (the  work  done  by  the  motor) 
and  then  divide  by  the  number  of  minutes  or  the  frac- 
tion of  a  minute  it  has  been  in  doing  it.  The  result 
will  be  the  number  of  foot-pounds  lifted  by  the  engine 
in  one  minute.  By  dividing  this  by  33,000  the  num- 
ber of  horse-power  can  be  determined. 

608.  The  Prony  Brake  Test.— The  prony  brake  is 


The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm  505 

the  standard  popular  means  of  determining  the  real 
power  of  an  engine  at  the  belt  wheel,  two  forms  of 
which  are  illustrated  in  chapter  XIV  of  this  work. 
A  is  a  timber  (Fig.  82)  cut  to  fit  over  the  belt  pulley 
of  an  engine.  To  the  lower  side  is  attached  a  wide 
leather  or  heavy  canvas  band  by  means  of  two  springs, 
the  belt  being  passed  around  the  wheel  and  secured 
at  the  other  end  to  a  bolt,  C,  which  may  be  shortened 
slowly  by  turning  down  the  nut.  Just  three  feet  from 
the  vertical  line  which  passes  from  the  timber  down- 
ward through  the  center  of  the  engine  shaft,  the  other 
end  of  the  timber  is  supported  to  a  spring  balance — 
one  with  a  capacity  of  25  pounds  is  sufficient  for  a 
small  engine.  In  case  the  spring  balance  is  not  at 
hand  a  pail,  working  over  a  pulley  and  into  which 
weights  may  be  dropped,  will  do  as  well. 

The  engine  is  started  with  belt  band  loose  so  as  not 
to  interfere ;  then  nut  at  C  is  taken  up  until  band 
tightens  so  that  the  engine  begins  to  slow  down. 
Note  the  reading  on  the  balance,  which  is  the  down- 
ward pull  the  engine  is  exerting  on  the  band ;  then 
with  a  speed  indicator  take  the  number  of  revolutions 
per  minute  the  engine  is  making.  If  no  indicator  is 
handy  tie  a  bit  of  string  to  one  of  the  slow-moving 
shafts  which  is  geared  to  the  crank  shaft,  and  count 
the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  that  it  makes. 
After  stopping  the  engine  turn  the  wheel  over  by 
hand  and  count  the  revolutions  necessary  for  it  to 
make  while  the  string  and  shaft  are  revolving  once. 
The  number  of  revolutions  the  small  wheel  makes  in 
one  minute  multiplied  by  the  number  of  times  the 
fly  wheel  revolves  to  each  revolution  of  the  small  one 
will  give  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  belt  or  fly 
wheel  per  minute  when  the  test  was  being  taken. 

The  pull  on  the  balance  (or  the  weight  in  the  pail) 


5o6  The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm 

which  the  engine  exerted  represents  the  energy  with 
which  it  tried  to  swing  the  weight  around  in  a  circle, 
the  radius  of  which  is  the  distance  from  the  center  of 
energy  or  the  center  of  the  belt  wheel  to  the  point 
where  weight  or  balance  was  attached,  in  this  case 
three  feet.  Twice  this  distance  or  six  feet  would  be 
the  diameter  of  the  circle,  and  this  multiplied  by 
3.1416  gives  the  circumference  of  revolution  or  the 
distance  through  which  the  engine  was  exerting  its 
pulling  energy  each  revolution.  If  we  multiply  this 
result  by  the  number  of  revolutions  made  per  minute 
we  would  get  the  total  distance  through  which  the 
weight  was  lifted  in  one  minute  and  multiplying  this 
by  the  number  of  pounds  in  the  weight  would  give 
the  total  foot-pounds  lifted  per  minute.  Dividing  by 
33,000  gives  us  the  required  horse-power  which  the 
engine  will  deliver  at  the  belt  under  full  load. 


INDEX 


Accessories  of  Feed  Room, 
361. 

Action  of  Differential  Gear, 
296. 

Action  of  Dry  Battery,  114. 

Adaptability  of  Gasoline  En- 
gines,   257. 

Adjustment  Changes  Governor 
Action,    134. 

Adjustment  of  Carburetor,  108. 

Adjustment  of  Carburetor 
Float  Valve,   109. 

Adulterants  of  Lubricants, 
211. 

Advantages  of  Deep  Plowing, 
280. 

Advantages  of  Dry   Cells,   117. 

Advantages  of  Gasoline  En- 
gine, 36. 

Advantages  of  Heavy  Gasoline 
Engines,   255. 

Advantages    of    Kerosene,    194. 

Advantages  of  Light  Gasoline 
Engines,  255. 

Advantages  of  Magneto,   173. 

Advantages  of  Simple  En- 
gines, 256. 

Advice  for  Use  of  Shafting, 
315- 

Aerating  Milk  Before  Bot- 
tling, 434. 


A   Good   Feeding   Plan,  358. 

Air  and  Gasoline  Mixtures, 
103. 

Air  Cooled  Gasoline  Engine, 
142. 

Alcohol,    Advantages    of,    198. 

Alcohol    as    Engine    Fuel,    198. 

Alcohol,   Peculiarities  of,   199. 

Alcohol,    Weaknesses   of,    198. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Oils, 
208.. 

Animal  Power,  Method  of 
Using,  34. 

Anti-Freezing  Cooling  Mix- 
tures,  146. 

Automatic    Carburetors,    103. 

Automatic  Drag  Saw  Rig,  384. 

Asbestos  Mill  Board  Pack- 
ings, 69. 

Automatic  Troughs,  Home- 
made, 363. 

Average  Life  of  Horse,  281. 


B 


Babbitt  Bearings,  Casting,   -^^y. 
Babbitt    Metal    Bearings,   324. 
Babbitt  Metal,  Nature  of,  324. 
Babbitting  a  Split  Box,  328. 
Backfiring,  Causes  of,  241. 
Backfiring   in    Carburetor,    106. 
Bad  Air,  Effects  of,  88. 
Balancing   Pulleys,  316. 


507 


5o8 


Index 


Ball      Bearings     for     Shafting, 

324- 
Batteries,    Method   of    Testing, 

229. 
Battery  of  Dry   Cells,    116. 
Bearing    Lubricants,   207. 
Bearings,    Babbitting    of    Split 

Box.  328. 
Bearings,    Ball,  324. 
Bearings       for       Gas      Engine 

Crank  Shafts,  150. 
Bearings   for  Shafting,  323. 
Bearings  for  Shafting,  Babbitt 

Metal,  324. 
Bearings,  Linings   and  Bushes, 

156. 
Bearings,   Roller  for    Shafting, 

323- 
Bearings,     Why     They     Heat, 

157. 
Belt    Capacity,    Rule    for    Fig- 
uring, 334. 
Belt   Hints,   338. 
Belt   Lacing,   340. 
Belt  Lacing,   Hook,  343. 
Belt  Lacing,   Wire,   343. 
Belts   and   Belting,   330. 
Belts,  Canvas,  331. 
Belts,  Dressings  for,  333- 
Belts,  Faults  of,  330. 
Belts,    Leather,    331. 
Belts,  Length  of,  335. 
Belts,    Method    of    Cementing, 

343- 
Belts,    Requirements    of,    331. 
Belts,    Rubber,   331. 
Belts,    Sizes  Required,   333. 
Belts,   Speed  of,  335. 
Belts,  Slipping  of,  336. 
Belts,    Splicing   Gandy,   344. 
Belts,   Useful    Kink,   339. 
Best    Material   for    Piston,   73. 


Best   Size  of  Gasoline  Engine, 

247. 
Bevel  and  Miter  Gearing,  348. 
Boring  the  Cylinder,  53. 
Brake  Horsepower,  252. 
Bushings        for        Connecting 

Rods,  80. 

C 

Call  of  the  Farm,  34. 

Canvas  Belts,  331. 

Carbon  Deposits,  Cause  of 
Preignition,    64. 

Carbon  Deposits,  Softening 
with    Kerosene,    70. 

Carbon  Deposits,  Symptoms 
of,  66. 

Carbon  in    Lubricants,   205. 

Carbonizing,  Cause  and  Ef- 
fects,  63. 

Carburetor,  Adjusting  Float, 
109. 

Carburetor  Defects,  Back- 
firing, 106. 

Carburetor  Defects,  Flooding, 
106. 

Carburetor,  How  It  Vaporizes 
Gasoline,    102. 

Carburetor  Troubles,  Elimi- 
nating,  105. 

Carburetors,    Automatic,    103. 

Carburetors,  IMethod  of  Ad- 
justment,   108. 

Carburetors,  Method  of  Prim- 
ing,   107. 

Carburetors,  Miscellaneous 

Hints,  109. 

Carburetors,  Size  of,  107. 

Care  and  Repair  of  Piston 
jMembers,  82. 

Care  of   Dry  Cells,   117. 

Care  of  Gears,  355. 


Index 


509 


Care  of  Governor,    139. 

Care  of  Leather  Gear  Wheels, 

351- 

Care    of   Magneto,    127. 

Care  of  Water  Cooling  Sys- 
tems,  145. 

Casting  Babbitt  Bearings,   327. 

Causes    of   Carbonizing,  63. 

Causes  of  Bearing  Heating, 
157. 

Causes  of  Defective  Compres- 
sion,   59. 

Causes  of  Faulty  Valve  Seat- 
ing, 88. 

Cementing  Belts,  343. 

Centrifugal    Governor,    137. 

Centrifugal  Pump  for  Irriga- 
tion, 406. 

Centrifugal  Pumps,  Limita- 
tions of,  407. 

Centrifugal  Pumps,  Suction 
Lift,    408. 

Centrifugal  Pumps,  Types  of^ 
407. 

Changing  Governor  Action  by 
Adjustment,   134. 

Churning  by  Power,  434. 

Circle  Saw  Outfit,  Portable, 
378. 

Circulating  System  of  Water 
Cooling,    143. 

Cleaning  Cylinder  Without 
Removing  Head,  70. 

Cleaning  Piston  and  Rings, 
17- 

Cleaning  the  Cylinder,  66. 

Clearance  of  Cylinder,  59. 

Clutch,  Function  of,  in  Tract- 
ors, 294. 

Cold  Test  of  Lubricants,  204. 

Comparing  Steam  and  Gas 
Tractor,    292. 


Comparing  Two-Cycle  and 
Four-C3'cle   Engine,   146. 

Compensating  or  Differential 
Gearing,  296. 

Complete  Electric  Lighting 
System,   Z144. 

Compressing  Gas,  Value  of,  56. 

Compression,  Effect  on  Effi- 
ciency,  58. 

Compression,  Effects         of 

Faulty,   59. 

Compression,  Effect  on  Fuel 
Consumption,  58. 

Compression,  How  Obtahied, 
56.         _ 

Compression,  Limits  of,  57. 

Compression,  Locating  Leaks, 
60. 

Compression,  Method  of  Test- 
ing, 60. 

Compression,    Reason  for,   55. 

Concentric  Piston  Rings,  75. 

Cone  and  Stepped  Pulleys, 
322. 

Connecting  Battery  to  En- 
gine,   118. 

Connecting   Rod  Bushings,   80. 

Connecting  Rod  Design,  80. 

Connecting  Rod  Lubrication, 
81. 

Connecting  Rods,  Materials 
for,  80. 

Connecting   Rod  Types,  80. 

Connections  for  Gasoline 
Tanks,   186. 

Construction  of  Drag  Saw, 
381. 

Construction    of    Dry    Battery, 

115- 
Construction   of  Piston,  72. 
Construction   of  Piston   Rings, 

75- 


510 


Index 


Construction    of    Spark    Plug, 

120. 

Continuous  Water  Supply,  by 
Open   Troughs.    362. 

Continuous  Water  Supply, 
Objections  to,  361. 

Controlling  Engine  Tempera- 
ture.  140. 

Controlling    Gasoline    Engines, 

133- 
Convenient  Rule  for  Belt  Size, 

334- 

Cooling    Hot    Engine,    238. 

Copper-Asbestos   Packings,   69. 

Cost   of  Irrigation,  404. 

Cost  of  Tractor  Farming,  288. 

Covering  Iron  Pulleys,  319. 

Crank   Shaft  Lubrication,  81. 

Crank  Shaft  of  Gasoline  En- 
gines,   151. 

Crank  Shafts,  Counterbal- 
anced,   152. 

Crank,  Use  in  Starting  En- 
gine, 275. 

Cream  Separator,  Power  Op- 
erated. 431. 

Cultivating  bv  ]\Iotor  Cvcle, 
464. 

Cure   for   Slipping  Belts,   2>2>7- 

Current  Production,  by  ]Mag- 
neto,   123. 

Cycle  of  Operations  in  Gaso- 
line   Engine,   44. 

Cylinder,     Best     ^Material     for. 

Cylinder,   Boring  the,  53. 

Cylinder    Clearance,   59. 

Cylinder  Clearance,  Decreas- 
ing, 61. 

Cylinder,  Defects  in,  54. 

Cylinder  Demands  Best  Foun- 
dry Work,   52. 


Cylinder, 

53- 
Cylinder. 
Cylinder 

Packing 
Cylinder, 

Design, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder. 
Cylinder. 

'66. 
Cylinder, 


Finish   by    Grinding, 

Functions   of,   51. 
Head,     Method     of 
,  69. 

Influence  on   Engine 
51- 

Lubricating,  62,. 
Lubricant    for,    206. 
^lethod  of  Cleaning, 

Removal    of,    67. 

D 


Dangers  of  Gasoline,   187. 
Dangers     of     Projecting     Set 

Screws,  320. 
Decreasing  Clearance,  61. 
Decreasing     Clearance,     Effect 

on   Power.   62. 
Deep  Plowing.  Advantages  of, 

280. 
Defective  Compression.  Causes 

of.   59. 
Defects  in  Cylinder  Bore,  54. 
Defects  of  Dry  Cells,  117. 
Defects  of  Piston,  '/6. 
Defects  of  Piston  Rings,  ^6. 
Dehnition  of  Horsepower,  251. 
Deflnitions         of  Electrical 

Terms,    497. 
Depth  of  Engine  Foundations, 

161. 
Design    of    Connecting    Rods, 

80. 
Design  of  Fly  Wheels,  154. 
Design  of  Piston  Rings,  y^. 
Differential    Gear,   Action    Ex- 
plained,  297. 
Differential    Gear,    Action    of, 

296. 


Index 


511 


Differential  Gear,  Function  of, 
296. 

Dimensions  of  Gear  Wheels, 
352. 

Disadvantages  of  Horse  as 
Power  Plant.  2SJ1,. 

Dish  Washing  by  Engine  Pow- 
er, 425. 

Disposal  of  ]\Ianiire  on  Fields, 
366. 

Distillate  as  Engine  Fuel,  198. 

Distributing  the  Water  for  Ir- 
rigation,   412. 

Ditch  Digging  by  Gasoline  En- 
gine, 484. 

Double   Ignition    System,    128. 

Drag  Saw,  Construction  of, 
381. 

Drag     Saw     Rig,     Automatic, 

384. 

Dressings   for   Belts,  333. 

Dry   Battery  Action,   114. 

Dry  Battery  Construction,   115. 

Dry  Cell  Battery,  Connecting 
to  Engine,  118. 

Dry  Cells,  Advantages  of,   117. 

Dry  Cells,  Care  of,  117. 

Dry  Cells,  Connecting  Into 
Batter}',   116. 

Dry  Cells,  Defects  of,   117. 

Dry  Cells,  Good  Arrange- 
ment of,  118. 

Dry   Cells,  Life  of,   117. 


Eccentric    Type    Piston    Rings, 

75- 
Effects  of  Bad  Air,  88. 
Effects   of   Carbonizing,   63. 
Electric     Current,     Producing, 

114. 


Electric  Lighting  by  Gas  Pow- 
er, 441. 

Electric  Lighting,  Storage 
Battery  for,  442. 

Electric  Lighting  System, 
Complete,   444. 

Electrical    Conveniences^    447. 

Electrical  Ignition,   174. 

Electrical  Ignition  System, 
Testing  for  Faults,  228. 

Electrical    Processes,    114. 

Electrical   Terms   Defined,  497. 

Electrical    Terms,    Relation   of, 

499- 
Electrical  Terms,  the  Ampere, 

497- 
Electrical     Terms,     the    Ohm, 

498. 
Electrical     Terms,     the     Volt, 

497- 

Electrical  Terms,  the  Watt, 
498. 

Electrical  Wiring,  Rules  for, 
501. 

Eliminating  Carburetor  Trou- 
bles,   105. 

Engine  Accessories,   159. 

Engine      for      Gas      Tractors, 

293- 
Engine  for  Workshop,  368. 
Engine  Installation,   Rules  for, 

500. 
Engine       Operated       Vacuum 

Cleaner,    426. 
Engine     Power     for     Ironing, 

422. 
Engine     Room     Abominations, 

179. 
Engine  Room  Cautions,   179. 
Engine    Room    Fittings,    174. 
Engine  Room,  Floor  for,    176. 
Engine  Room,  Line  Shaft,  177. 


512 


Index 


Engine  Room,  Mission  of 
Paint,   178. 

Engine  Room,  Painting  Muf- 
fler,   178. 

Engine  Room,  Provisions  for 
Storing  Oil,  i75- 

Engine  Room,  the  Work 
Bench,    176. 

Engine  Room  Ventilation,  176. 

Engine  Speed  Control,   133. 

Engine  Temperature,  Method 
of   Controlling,   140. 

Engine  Troubles,  a  Bit  of 
Parting  Advice,  243. 

Engine  Troubles,  a  Few  Igni- 
tion Facts,  232. 

Engine  Troubles,  a  Suspected 
Timer,  234. 

Engine  Troubles,  a  Few  Sim- 
ple   Questions,   226. 

Engine  Troubles,  Back-firing, 
241. 

Engine  Troubles,  Cause  of 
Shocks,    232. 

Engine  Troubles,  Common, 
242. 

Engine  Troubles,  Faulty 
Transmission,   223. 

Engine  Troubles,  First  Thing 
to   Do,   226. 

Engine  Troubles,  Irregular, 
224. 

Engine  Troubles,  Knocking, 
242. 

Engine  Troubles,  Lack  of  En- 
ergy, 223. 

Engine  Troubles,  Lack  of 
Power,   235. 

Engine  Troubles,  Misfiring, 
241. 

Engine  Troubles,  Operating, 
223. 


Engine  Troubles,  Origin  of, 
224. 

Engine  Troubles,  Outside 
Knocking,  242. 

Engine  Troubles,  Overheat- 
ing, 237. 

Engine  Troubles,  Pounding, 
242. 

Engine  Troubles,  Pre-ignition, 
240. 

Engine  Troubles,  Speed  Vari- 
ations, 239. 

Engine  Troubles,  Starting,  22^. 

Engine  Troubles,  Testing  Bat- 
teries, 229. 

Engine  Troubles,  Testing  Coil, 
230. 

Engine  Troubles,  Testing 
Electrical    System,  228. 

Engine  Troubles,  Testing 
Magneto,  231. 

Engine  Troubles,  Test  with 
System,  226. 

Equipment  of  Work  Shop, 
368. 

Exhaust   Port,    Size  of,  90. 

Exhaust  Valve,  Setting,  93. 

Explaining  Dififerential  Gear 
Action,    297. 

Extinguishing  Gasoline  Fires, 
193- 


Face  of  Gears  for  Tractor 
Transmissions,   295. 

Farm  Dairy,  Churning  by 
Power,   434. 

Farm  Dairy,  Gasoline  Engine 
in,    428. 

Farm  Dairy,  ]\Iilking  Ma- 
chines for,  428. 


Index 


513 


Farm    Dairy,    Power   Operated 
Separator,  431. 

Farm    Water    Supply   Systems, 
422. 

Faulty      Compression,     Effects 
of,   59- 

Faulty  Valve  Seating,  88. 

Feed  Grinding  by  Power,  356. 

Feed   Grinding,   When   Conve- 
nient, 356. 

Feed   Room  Accessories,  361. 

Fighting    Weeds    by    Gasoline 
Engine,  482. 

Filling   Foundation   Pit,    165. 

Filtering  Lubricants    218. 

Finish   of   Gears,   346. 

Finding  Size  of   Pulleys,  316. 

Fire  Extinguishing,  Rules  for, 
502. 

Fires,    Gasoline,    How    to    Ex- 
tinguish,  193. 

Firing     Charge     by     Compres- 
sion,   113. 

First  Accomplishment  of  Trac- 
tion Engine,  277. 

First  Gasoline  Engine,  42. 

Fittings     for     Engine     Room,  . 
174- 

Flash     Point     of     Lubricants, 
204. 

Flash  Test  of  Lubricants,  211. 

Float  Valve  Adjustment,   109. 

Flooding    Carburetors,    106. 

Floor  for  Engine  Room,  176. 

Fluidity  of  Lubricants,  204. 

Flushing  Out  Gutters,  366. 

Fly    Wheel    Design   and    Con- 
struction,   154. 

Fly  Wheels,  Why  Needed,  153. 

Foolish    Economy    in    Lubrica- 
tion,   220. 

Force   Feed   Lubrication,   216. 


Forms  of  Farm  Power,  34. 

Formulae  for  Horsepower,  503. 

Foundation  Blue  Print,  Use 
of,    162. 

Foundations,  Filling  the  Pit, 
165. 

Foundations   for   Engines,   161. 

Foundations  for  Engines^ 
Depth  of,   161. 

Foundations  for  Gasoline 
Tanks,    185. 

Foundations,  Lining  Engine 
on,  167. 

Foundations,  Leveling  En- 
gines  on,    169. 

Foundations,  Locking  Bolts  in 
Place,    167. 

Foundations,  Making  a 

Frame,    165. 

Foundations,  Making  a  Tem- 
plate,  165. 

Foundations,  Material  Need- 
ed,  164. 

Foundations,  Placing  Engine 
on,   167. 

Foundations,  Portable  Engine, 
171. 

Foundations,  Preparing  Mate- 
rial,   164. 

Foundations,  the  Final  Set- 
ting,  167. 

Foundations,  Vacuum  Type, 
171. 

Foundations,  Various  Types 
of,   170. 

Four-Cycle  Engine  Operation, 
44. 

Four-Cycle  Engine,  Why  Pre- 
ferred, 47. 

Frame  for  Foundation,  165. 

Frame  of  Gasoline  Engine, 
149- 


514 


Index 


Fuel  and  Air  Proportions,  loi. 
Fuel  Feed  Pipe,  Guarding,  i86. 
Fuel  Feed  Pipe  Joints,  i86. 
Fuel  for  Engines,  Alcohol,  198. 
Fuel     for    Engines,    Distillate, 

198. 
Fuel     for    Engines,     Gasoline, 

181. 
Fuel     for    Engines,    Kerosene, 

194. 
Fuel    for    Engines,    Notes    on, 

199. 
Fuel       Regulating       Governor, 

135- 
Functions    of   Cylinder,   51. 
Function  of  Differential   Gear, 

296. 
Function  of  Intake  Port,  85. 
Functions   of   Piston,    ^2. 


Gasoline,   Changing  from,   197. 
Gasoline,  Common  Risks  with, 

191. 
Gasoline,  Dangers  of,  187. 
Garden   and   Small   Farm  Irri- 
gation, 408. 
Gasoline    Engine,    Air    Cooled, 

142. 
Gasoline      Engine,      as      Fruit 

Gatherer,    466. 
Gasoline  Engine,  as  Post  Hole 

Digger,  456. 
Gasoline    Engine,     as     Utility 

Man,  38. 
Gasoline  Engine,  as  Well  Drill 

Power,  457. 
Gasoline    Engine,    Convertible, 

43- 
Gasoline  Engine,  Cycle  of  Op- 
erations,  44. 


Gasoline       Engine,       Ditching 

with,    484. 
Gasoline     Engine,     Effect     on 

Farm  Boy,  39. 
Gasoline       Engine,       First, 

42. 
Gasoline     Engine,      for     Barn 

Hoist,    458. 
Gasoline    Engine,    for    Churn- 
ing, 434- 
Gasoline     Engine,     for     Farm 

Power,  36. 
Gasoline   Engine,   for  Fighting 

Weeds,  482. 
Gasoline     Engine,     for     Grain 

Tender,  460. 
Gasoline      Engine,      for      Low 

Power  Trucking,  454. 
Gasoline    Engine,    for    Spray- 
ing,   387. 
Gasoline    Engine,    for    Tractor 

Mower,  463. 
Gasoline    Engine,     for     Wood 

Sawing,  :i,T7. 
Gasoline    Engine    Foundations, 

Filling  the  Pit,   165. 
Gasoline      Engine,       Governor 

for,  137. 
Gasoline     Engine,    Harvesting 

Corn   Crop,  478. 
Gasoline    Engine,    Helping   the 

Binder,   470. 
Gasoline     Engine,     Hints     for 

Starting,  265. 
Gasoline     Engine,      Household 

Uses  for,  437. 
Gasoline    Engine,    Ice    ^Making 

by,  435- 
Gasoline      Engine,     in      Ideal 

Farm  Home,  493. 
Gasoline   Engine,  in  the  Field, 

Z7- 


Index 


515 


Gasoline  Engine,  in  the  Hay 
Field,   472. 

Gasoline  Engine,  in  the 
Kitchen,    38. 

Gasoline  Engine,  in  the  Poul- 
try Yard,   486. 

Gasoline  Engine,  in  Road 
]\Iaking^  481. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Making 
Spreader  Work,  473. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Necessary 
Components   of,    48. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Oiling  New, 
264. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Operating 
Cream   Separator,  431. 

Gasoline    Engine,    Otto,   43. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Plea  for 
Small,  247. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Power  Re- 
quired for  Various  Tasks, 
249. 

Gasoline     Engines,    Price     of, 

257. 
Gasoline       Engines,        Second 

Hand,  263. 
Gasoline      Engines,      Selecting, 

245- 
Gasoline       Engines,       Setting, 

161. 
Gasoline   Engines,   Shelter  for, 

173. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Shutting 
Down,    270. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Six  and 
Eight   Cycle,  47. 

Gasoline  Engines,  the  Crank 
Shaft,   151. 

Gasoline  Engines,  the  Person- 
al Hazard,  274. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Troubles 
Classified,   223. 


Gasoline       Engines,       Testing, 

259- 
Gasoline    Engines,    Things    to 

Think  About,  271. 
Gasoline     Engines,    Tying     to 

Foundation,    164. 
Gasoline     Engines,     Types    of, 

50. 
Gasoline     Engines,     Type     Re- 
quired   for   Irrigation,   404. 
Gasoline       Engines,       Vacuum 

Cleaner   Power,  426. 
Gasoline     Engines,     What     to 

Let  Alone,  269. 
Gasoline    Fires,    How    to    Ex- 
tinguish,  193. 
Gasoline,  Grades  of,   182. 
Gasoline,       How      Carburetor 

Vaporizes,   102. 
Gasoline,    How    Obtained,    182. 
Gasoline,  Nature  of,  181. 
Gasoline,     Rules     for     Safety, 

190. 
Gasoline,    Storage    System   for, 

183. 
Gasoline,  Tank  for,   184. 
Gasoline     Tanks,    Connections 

for,  186. 
Gasoline    Tanks,     Foundations 

for,  185. 
Gasoline     Tanks,     Joints     for 

Pipes,   186. 
Gasoline,   Tests   of,    182. 
Gasoline      Tractor      Compared 

with    Steam,   292. 
Gasoline  Tractor,  Starting,  303. 
Gasoline   Tractor,    What   It   Is 

Doing,    279. 
Gasoline    Tractors,    Power    of, 

298. 
Gasoline    Vapor,    Mixing    with 

Air,   103. 


5i6 


Index 


Gear    Wheels,    Bevel    and    Mi- 
ter, 348. 
•      Gear  Wheels,   Cams,   349. 

Gear   Wheels,    Care   of   Leath- 
er, 351- 

Gear    Wheels,  Dimensions    of, 
352. 

Gasoline  Engine,    Principle  of, 
42. 

Gasoline    Engine,    Relation    to 
Hired   ]\Ian,    39. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Sheep  Shear- 
ing  with,  485. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Shortens 
Road   to  ^Market,  486. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Source  of 
Power   in,  43. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Style  Re- 
quired,   246. 

Gasoline  Engine,  S3'stem  in 
Starting,  264. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Tempera- 
ture in  Cylinder,  44. 

Gasoline  Engine,  the  Best 
Size,    247. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Thermal  Ef- 
ficiency of,   503. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Turning  on 
the  Load,  261. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Use  at 
Threshing  Time,  475. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Vital  Parts 
of,   47. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Watching 
New,   262. 

Gasoline  Engine,  Water 
Cooled,    142. 

Gasoline  Engine,  What  Five 
Horsepower  Will  Do, 
249. 

Gasoline  Engine,  What  Outfit 
Includes,    262. 


Gasoline  Engine,  What  to   Do 

with    New,    261. 
Gasoline    Engine,    What    Two 

Horsepower   Will   Do,   249. 
Gasoline  Engine,  Why  Cooled, 

140. 
Gasoline  Engines,  Adaptability 

of,  257. 
Gasoline    Engines,   Advantages 

of  Heavy,  255 
Gasoline   Engines,   Advantages 

of  Light,   255. 
Gasoline    Engines,  Advantages 

of  Simplicity,  256. 
Gasoline      Engines,      Arrange- 
ment of  Main  Bearings,  150. 
Gasoline     Engines,     Attention 

Required,   268. 
Gasoline  Engines,   Controlling, 

133- 

Gasoline  Engines,  Cooling 
Hot,  238. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Cylinder 
Oil   for,  206. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Dish  Wash- 
ing by,  425, 

Gasoline  Engines,  Electrical 
Knowledge  for,   114. 

Gasoline  Engines,  for  Electric 
Lighting,   441. 

Gasoline  Engines,  for  Farm 
Women,  416. 

Gasoline  Engines,  for  Ice  Cut- 
ter, 435. 

Gasoline  Engines,  for  the 
Housewife,  447. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Foundations 
for,  161. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Frames  of, 
149. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Fuel  for, 
181. 


Index 


517 


Gasoline  Engines,  Function  of 
Fly  Wheel,  153. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Getting  Up 
Power,    267. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Heart  of, 
99. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Mounted, 
172. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Main  Bear- 
ings of,  155. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Overhaul- 
ing, 272. 

Gasoline  Engines,  Placing  on 
Foundation,    167. 

Gear  Wheels,  External  Spur, 
348. 

Gear  Wheels,  Finish  of,  346. 

Gear  Wheels,  for  Power 
Transmission,  246. 

Gear  Wheels,,  General  Rules 
for   Care    of,    355. 

Gear  Wheels,  Ideal  Order  for, 
354- 

Gear  Wheels,  Intermittent,  349, 

Gear  Wheels,  Internal  Spur, 
348. 

Gear  Wheels,  Alaterials  for, 
346. 

Gear  Wheels,  Rawhide,  351. 

Gear  Wheels,   Spur  Type,  348. 

Gear  Wheels,  Strength  of,  353. 

Gear  Wheels,  Worm  and  Spi- 
ral Types,  349. 

General  Care  of  Tractors,  311. 

General  Construction  of  Tract- 
ors, 291. 

General  Types  of  Gasoline  En- 
gines, 50. 

Good  Arrangement  of  Dry 
Cells,   118. 

Governing  by  Hit  or  Miss  Sys- 
tem, 136. 


Governing  by  Regulating  Fuel, 
135- 

Governing,  Methods  of,  135. 

Governor  Action,  Rules  Con- 
cerning,  134. 

Governor,  Care  of,    139. 

Governor,  Centrifugal  Type, 
137- 

Governor,  Ignition,   140. 

Governor,  Pick  Blade  Type, 
138. 

Governor  Pulley  for  Separator 
Drive,  432. 

Governor  Pulley,  How  It 
Works,  433. 

Governor,  Throttling,  137. 

Governors,     Fuel     Regulating, 

135- 
Governors,  Hit  or  Miss,  136. 
Graphite  as  a  Lubricant,  220. 
Gravity  Oiling  System,  214. 
Grease  as  a  Lubricant,  220. 
Grinding,  Advantages  of,  53. 
Grinding  Cob   Meal,  360. 
Grinding  Cylinder  Bore,  53. 
Grinding  Family  Grists,  360. 
Gudgeon  Pin,  Material  for,  79. 
Gums  and  Acids  in  Lubricants, 

205. 

H 

Hands,   Protection   of,  227. 
Harrowing  with  Tractor,  280. 
Hauling   with   Tractors,   310. 
Heat  Measurement  Units,  502. 
Hints  for  Care  of  Piston  and 

Auxiliaries,  83. 
Hints    for     Starting     Gasoline 

Engine,   265. 
Hit  or  Miss  Governor,  136. 
H  o  m  e-m  ade    Automatic 

Troughs,  363. 


5i8 


Index 


H  o  m  e-m  a  d  e     Conveniences, 

Horseless  Buggy,  454. 
Horn  e-m  a  d  e     Conveniences, 

Light  Power  Tractors,  453. 
H  o  m  e-m  a  d  e     Conveniences, 

Post  Hole  Digger,  456. 
H  o  m  e-m  a  d  e     Conveniences, 

Power  Saw,  468. 
H  o  m  e-m  a  d  e     Conveniences, 

Self-Moving  Engines,  452. 
H  o  m  e-m  a  d  e     Conveniences, 

Well  Drill,  457- 
Home-made  Pulleys,  322. 
Home-made  Tractors,  301. 
Hooks  for  Joining  Belts,  343. 
Horse  as  Power  Plant,  Disad' 

vantages  of,  283. 
Horse,  Life  of  Average,  281. 
Horse,       Work       of       While 

Plowing,  281. 
Horsepower,  Brake,  252. 
Horsepower,   Formulae,  503. 
Horsepower,  Lidicated,  252. 
Horsepower,   Nominal,  252. 
Horsepower,  Purchasing,  253. 
Horsepower,   Tractive,    253. 
Horsepower,    What    It    Means, 

251- 

Hose    for    Spraying,   396. 

Hot    Tube    Ignition,    112. 

Household  Conveniences  Oper- 
ated by  Electricity,  447. 

Household  Uses  of  Gasoline 
Engine,  437. 

How  Charge  Is  Compressed,  56. 

How  Governor   Pulley  Works, 

433- 
How  Lubricants  Work,  202. 

I 

Ice  Cutter,  Gasoline  Engine 
Operated,   435. 


Ice  Making  by  Power,  435. 

Ideal   Farm   Home,   493. 

Ideal  Farm  Power,  36. 

Ideal   Gear  Wheel  Order,   354. 

Ideal  Work  Shop  Arrange- 
ment,  369. 

Ignition,  by   Compression,   113. 

Ignition,  by  Double  System, 
128. 

Ignition,  by  Electricity,  114. 

Ignition,  by  Hot  Tube,  112. 

Ignition,  by  Jump  Spark,  121. 

Ignition,  by  Open   Flame,    112. 

Ignition,  Function  of  Spark 
Coil,   119. 

Ignition  Governor,  140. 

Ignition,  How  Spark  Fires 
Charge,    121. 

Ignition,  j\Iake  and  Break,  121. 

Ignition.  Problem  of,  iii. 

Ignition  Systems,  a  Few  Facts, 

22>2. 

Ignition,  the  Wiring  System, 
130. 

Ignition,   Timing,    131. 

Importance  of  Lubrication, 
201. 

Increasing  Power  by  Decreas- 
ing Clearance,  62. 

Indicated   Horsepower,  252. 

Induction  Coils,  Faults  of,  230. 

Influence  of  Cylinder  on  De- 
sign, SI. 

Inlet  Valve,  Setting,  92. 

Inlet  Valve,  Testing,  92. 

Inspecting   Valve   System,  91. 

Intake   Port,   Size  of,  86. 

Intermittent   Gears,   349. 

Ironing  by  Engine  Power,  422. 

Iron   Pulleys,    Covering,  319. 

Irrigation,  Centrifugal  Pump 
for,  406. 


Index 


519 


Irrigation,  Cost  of,  404. 
Irrigation,      Distributing       the 

Water,  412. 
Irrigation,      Engine      Required 

for,  404. 
Irrigation    from    Deep     Wells^ 

409. 
Irrigation,    Garden    and    Small 

Farm,  408. 
Irrigation,     Kinks     and     Cau- 
tions, 415. 
Irrigation    Plants,   What   They 

Contain,  402. 
Irrigation,    Quantity   of   Water 

for,  402. 
Irrigation,     When     Necessary, 

400. 
Irrigation,     Where     Necessary, 

399- 
Irrigation,  Why  Needed,  399. 


Joints  for  Gasoline  Pipes,  186. 
Jump   Spark  Ignition,   121. 


K 


Kerosene,  Advantages  of,  194. 
Kerosene  as  Engine  Fuel,  194. 
Kerosene   for   Cutting   Carbon, 

70. 
Kerosene,  Objections  to,  194. 


Lace  Leathers,  341. 

Lacing   Belts,    340. 

Lacing  Belts,  Methods  of,  342. 

Laundry  for  Farm,  Ironing  by 
Power,  422. 

Laundry  for  Farm,  Power  Op- 
erated,  417. 


Laundry  for  Farm,  Washing 
jMachines  for,  419. 

Leaks,  Method  of  Locating,  89. 

Learning  to  Guide  the  Tractor, 
306. 

Leather  Belts,  331. 

Leather  for  Belt  Lacing,  341. 

Length  of  Belts,  335. 

Leveling  Engines  on  Founda- 
tions,   169. 

Life  of  Dry  Cells,   117. 

Life  of  Horse,  Average,  281, 

Limitations  of  Centrifugal 
Pumps,  407. 

Limits  of  Compression,  57. 

Line  Shaft  of  Engine  Room, 
177. 

Lining  Engines  on  Founda- 
tions,   167. 

Linings  and  Bushes  for  En- 
gine   Bearings,    156. 

Locating  Leaks,  60. 

Locating  Machines  in  Work 
Shop,  371. 

Locking  Foundation  Bolts,  167. 

Loose   Pulley  Troubles,  321. 

Loose  Ring  Lubrication,  216. 

Low  Tension  Magneto,  126. 

Lubricants,  Amount  of  Carbon 
in,  213. 

Lubricants,  Animal  and  Vege- 
table,  208. 

Lubricants,   Carbon  in,  205. 

Lubricants,  Cold  Test  of,  204. 

Lubricants,  Filtering,  218. 

Lubricants,  Flash  Point  of, 
204. 

Lubricants,  Flash  Test  of,  21  r. 

Lubricants,    Fluidity  of,   204. 

Lubricants,  for  Bearings,  207. 

Lubricants,  for  Engine  Cylin- 
ders, 206. 


520 


Index 


LubricantSj  Graphite,  220. 

Lubricants,  Grease,  220. 

Lubricants,  Gums  and  Acids 
in,  205. 

Lubricants,  How  They  Work, 
202. 

Lubricants,  Mineral  Oils, 
209. 

Lubricants,  Quantity  of,  213. 

Lubricants,  Testing  for  Acid, 
210. 

Lubricants,  Testing  for  Adul- 
terants, 211. 

Lubricants,  Testing  for  Gum, 
211. 

Lubricants,  Testing  for  Vis- 
cosity, 210, 

Lubricants,  Variety  Needed, 
205. 

Lubricants,  Viscosity  of,  203. 

Lubricants,  Waste  of,  213. 

Lubricants,  What  They  Are, 
203. 

Lubricating  Systems,  Gravity, 
214. 

Lubricating  the  Cylinder,  63. 

Lubrication,  Foolish  Economy 
in,  220. 

Lubrication,   Force  Feed,  216. 

Lubrication,  Importance  of, 
201. 

Lubrication,  Loose  Ring  Sys- 
tem, 216. 

Lubrication  of  Connecting 
Rods,  81. 

Lubrication,  Pressure  System, 
216. 

Lubrication,  Purpose  of,  201. 

Lubrication     Systems,    Splash, 

215- 

Lubrication,  Ten  Command- 
ments of,  221. 


Lubrication,  Through  Carbu- 
retor, 217. 

M 

Machine  Designers'  Problem, 
34. 

Machinery,  What  It  Has  Done 
for  Farm  Women,  416. 

Magneto   Action,    123. 

Magneto  Advantages,  123. 

Magneto,   Care  of,   127. 

Magneto,  Method  of  Testing, 
231. 

Magneto,  How  It  Generates 
Current,   125. 

Magnetos,  Low  Tension,  126. 

Main  Bearings  of  Gasoline 
Engines,   155. 

Make  and  Break  Ignition,  121. 

Making  Piston  Rings,  75. 

Material,  Best  for  Cylinder,  52. 

Material  for  Gudgeon  Pin,  79. 

Material   for  Piston  Rings,  75. 

Material  for  Packings,  69. 

Materials  for  Connecting 
Rods,  80. 

Materials  for  Gears,  346. 

Materials  Needed  for  Engine 
Foundations,  164. 

Message  of  Traction  Engine, 
277. 

Method  of  Locating  Leaks,  89. 

Method  of  Priming  Carburet- 
or,  107. 

Method  of  Proportioning  In- 
take Port,  86. 

Method  of  Valve  Grinding,  95. 

Methods  of  Governing,  135. 

Methods  of  Lacing,  342. 

Methods  of  Power  Transmis- 
sion, 313. 


Index 


521 


Milking  by  Power,  Vacuum 
Process,  428. 

Milking  Cows  by  Gasoline 
Power,  428. 

Milking  Machines,  Power  Op- 
erated, 428. 

Mineral  or  Hydrocarbon  Lu- 
bricants, 209. 

Misfiring,  Causes  of,  241. 

Mixing  Air  and  Gasoline  Va- 
por,  103. 

Motorcycle  Used  for  Cultivat- 
ing, 464. 

Mounted  Gasoline  Engines, 
172. 

Muffler,  Use  and  Abuse,  97. 

N 

Nature  of  Babbitt  Metal,  325, 
Nature  of  Gasoline,  181. 
Necessary  Components  of  Gas- 
oline Engine,  48. 
Nominal  Horsepower,  252, 
Notes  on  Engine  Fuels,  199. 
Nozzles  for  Spraying,  394. 


Objections  to  Kerosene,  194. 

Object  of  Valve  Timing,  91. 

Oiling   New   Engine,  264. 

Open   Flame    Ignition,    112. 

Open  Jacket  Water  Cooling 
System,   142. 

Operating  Cream  Separator  by 
Power,  431. 

Operation  of  Four-Cycle  En- 
gine, 44. 

Otto   Gasoline   Engine,  43. 

Outfits   for   Spraying,   398. 

Overhauling  Gasoline  Engine, 
272. 

Overheating,  Causes  of,  237. 


Packing     the    Cylinder    Head, 

69. 
Packing,   Treatment  of,   70. 
Packings,  Asbestos  Mill  Board, 

69. 
Packings,  Copper-Asbestos,  69. 
Packings,  Material  for,  69. 
Paint,  for  Muffler,  178. 
Paint,    Its    Mission    in    Engine 

Room,    178. 
Peculiarities  of  Alcohol,   199. 
Personal  Hazard  with  Gasoline 

Engines,  274. 
Pick  Blade  Governor,  138. 
Piston    and    Auxiliaries,   Care 

of,  83. 
Piston     and    Rings,    Cleaning, 

77- 

Piston,  Best  Material  for,  73. 

Piston,  Construction  of,  72, 

Piston  Defects,  76. 

Piston,  Design  and  Workman- 
ship, 73. 

Piston,  Functions  of,  72. 

Piston  or  Gudgeon  Pin,  79. 

Piston  Pin,  Method  of  Propor- 
tioning,   79. 

Piston  Pin,  Pressure  on,  79. 

Piston  Ring  Joints,  75. 

Piston  Rings,  Concentric  Type, 
75- 

Piston  Rings,  Construction  of, 

75- 

Piston  Rings,  Defects  of,  76. 

Piston  Rings,  Design  of,  73. 

Piston  Rings,   Eccentric  Type, 

75. 
Piston  Rings,  Making,  75. 
Piston  Rings,  Material  for,  75. 
Piston  Rings,  Purpose  of,  73. 


522 


Index 


Piston  Rings,   Replacing,   78. 
Piston  Rings,  Removing,  y2:. 
Piston  Rings,  Truing,  76. 
Plea     for     the    Small    Engine, 

247. 
Plowing  with  Tractor,  280. 
Plowing,  Cost  for  Ten  Hours 

with  Tractor,  289. 
Plowing,    Power    Needed    for, 

300. 
Portable    Circular   Saw    Outfit, 

378. 
Portable    Engine    Foundations, 

171. 
Port  and  Valve  System,  85. 
Power    for    the    Farm,    Forms 

of,    34- 
Power  for  the  Farm,  Gasoline 

Engine,    36. 
Power    for    the    Farm,    Ideal, 

Power  Laundry  for  Farm,  417. 

Power  Needed  for  Plowing, 
300. 

Power  of  Gasoline  Tractors, 
298. 

Power  of  Gear  Wheels,  353. 

Power  Operated  Wood  Split- 
ter,   386. 

Power    Required    for    Sawing, 

379- 

Power  Required  for  Various 
Farm  Tasks,  249. 

Power   Saw,   Home-made,  468. 

Power  Transmission  by  Belts, 
330. 

Power  Transmission  by  Gear 
Wheels,  346. 

Power  Transmission  by  Ropes, 
345- 

Power  Transmission  by  Shaft- 
ing, 313. 


Power  Transmission  Methods, 

313- 
Preignition  Caused  by  Carbon, 

64. 

Preignition,  Causes  of,  240. 

Preparing  Boxes  for  Bab- 
bitting, 324. 

Preparing  ]\Iaterial  for  Engine 
Foundations,  164. 

Preparing  to  Start  Tractor, 
303. 

Pressure  on  Piston  Pin,  79. 

Pressure  Sj'stem  for  Water 
Supply,  423. 

Pressure  System  of  Lubrica- 
tion, 216. 

Price  of  Gasoline  Engines,  257. 

Primary  Circuit,  What  It  In- 
cludes,   129. 

Principle  of  Gasoline  Engine, 
42. 

Problem,  Great  Farm,  t,^. 

Problem,  Machine  Designers, 
34- 

Problem  of  Ignition,  iii. 

Producing  Electric  Current, 
114. 

Prony  Brake  Test,  How 
Made,  505. 

Proportioning  Piston  Pin,  79. 

Proportions   of  Fuel   and   Air, 

lOI. 

Protecting  the   Hands,  227. 
Pulleys,  Balance  of,  316. 
Pulleys,     Cone     and     Stepped, 

322. 
Pulleys,  Covering,  319. 
Pulleys,  Finding  Size  of,  316. 
Pulleys,   Home-made,   322. 
Pulleys,     Securing     to     Shaft, 

319- 
Pulleys,  Split  Wood,  317. 


Index 


523 


Pulleys,    Straight    and    Crown  - 
Face,  318. 

Pulleys,  Tight  and  Loose,  321. 

Pulleys,   Type  of,  317. 

Pulleys,  Use  of,  318. 

Pumping   Outfit   for   Spraying, 
392. 

Pumps  for   Deep  Well   Pump- 
ing, 409. 

Purchasing  Horsepower,  253. 

Pure  Gasoline  Vapor,  Not  In- 
flammable,  181. 

Purpose  of  Farm  Work  Shop, 

Purpose  of  Lubrication,  201. 
Purpose  of  Piston  Rings,  72>- 


Ratings,    How    Overload    Af- 
fects, 254. 
Rawhide  Gear  Wheels,  351. 
Reassembling  Engine,  67. 
Reason        for        Compressing 

Charge,  55. 
Removing  Piston  Rings,  78. 
Removing  the  Cylinder,  67. 
Replacing  Cylinder,  67. 
Replacing  Piston  Rings,  78. 
Requirements  of  Belts,  331. 
Requirements    of    Small    Farm 

Tractors,  285. 
Road    iMaking   by   Gas    Power, 

481. 
Road   IMaking  by   Gas    Power, 

Cost  of,  481. 
Roller    Bearings    for    Shafting, 

2,23. 
Rope    Transmission,    345. 
Rubber  Belting,  331. 
Rules     Concerning     Governor 

Action,    134. 


Rules  for  Electric  Wiring,  501. 

Rules  for  Engine  Installation, 
500. 

Rule  for  Figuring  Beit  Capac- 
ity, 334. 

Rules  for  Figuring  Gear 
Wheels,  352. 

Rules  for  Fire  Extinguishing, 
502. 

Rules  for  Safety  When  Using 
Gasoline,  190. 

Rule  for  Size  of  Exhaust  Port, 
90. 

Rule  for  Size  of  Inlet  Port,  86. 

Rule,  General,  for  Valve  Tim- 
ing, 94. 


Secondary  Circuit,  What  It 
Includes,  129. 

Second  Hand  Gasoline  En- 
gines,   263. 

Securing  Pulleys  to  Shaft,  319. 

Selecting  a  Gas    Engine,   245, 

Separator  Drive  by  Governor 
Pulley,  432. 

Set  Screw  Dangers,  320. 

Setting  Exhaust  Valve,  93. 

Setting  Gasoline  Engines,   161. 

Setting  Intake  Valve,  92. 

Setting  Up  Wood  Sawing  Out- 
fit, 379- 

Shafting,  Advice  for  Use,  315. 

Shafting   Bearings,   z^^- 

Shafting  for  Power  Transmis- 
sion, 313. 

Shafts,  Speed  of,  316. 

Sheep  Shearing  with  Gasoline 
Engine,  485. 

Shelter  for  Gasoline  Engines, 
173. 


;24 


Index 


Shims,   Use   in   Boxes,   328. 
Shutting    Down    Gasoline    En- 
gines,   270. 
Simple      Home      Brake      Test, 

504. 
Six  and   Eight  Cycle   Engines, 

47. 

Size  of  Carburetors,   107. 

Size  of  Intake  Port,  86. 

Size  of  Belts  Required,  333. 

Slipping  Belts,   336. 

Slipping  Belts,  Cure  for,  337. 

Small  Farm  Tractors,  283. 

Small  Farm  Tractors,  Re- 
quirements of,  285. 

Source  of  Power  in  Gasoline 
Engine,  43. 

Spark  Coil   Functions,   119. 

Spark  Follies,   132. 

Spark,  How   Formed,   120. 

Spark    Plug   Action,    120. 

Spark   Plug  Construction,    120. 

Speed  Allowable  with  Tractor, 
310. 

Speed   Controller,   Mission   of, 

133- 
Speed  of  Belts,  335. 
Speed  of  Shafts,   316. 
Speed    Variations    Caused    by 

Governor,  239. 
Speed    Variations    in    Engines, 

239- 
Splash   System  of  Lubrication, 

215- 

Splicing  Gandy  or  Canvas 
Belt,  344- 

Spraying,  Effect  on  Yield,  398. 

Spraying,  Good  and  Cheap 
Outfits,  398. 

Spraying,  Good  Pumping  Out- 
fit, 392. 

Spraying,  Hose  for,  396. 


Spraving,      Nature's      ]\Iethod, 

388. 
Spraying,   Nozzles   for,   394. 
Spraying,     Real     Purpose     of, 

388. 
Spraying,    Successful    Method, 

391. 
Spraying,  Value  of,  387. 
Spraying,     Vermorel     Nozzles 

for,  396. 
Spraying    with    Gasoline     En- 
gine,   387. 
Spur  Gearing,  348. 
Starting    Engine    with    Crank, 

275- 
Storage    Battery,    Capacity   of, 

442. 
Storage    Battery    for    Electric 

Lighting,   442. 
Storage     System     for     Water 

Supply,  422. 
Storing  Oil   in   Engine  Room, 

175- 

Straight  and  Crown  Face  Pul- 
leys,  318. 

Style  of  Gasoline  Engine  Re- 
quired, 246. 

Suction  Lift  of  Centrifugal 
Pumps,  408. 

Summary  of  Complete  Farm 
Home,  493. 

Symptoms  of  Carbon  Deposit, 
66. 

System  in  Starting  Gasoline 
Engine,  264. 


Temperature  in  Gas  Engine 
Cylinder,  44. 

Template   for  Foundation,  165. 

Ten  Lubricating  Command- 
ments,   221. 


Index 


525 


Testing  Batteries,  229. 

Testing  Compression,  60. 

Testing  Electrical  Ignition 
S}-stem,   228. 

Testing  for  Acid  in  Oil,  210. 

Testing  Gasoline  Engines,  259. 

Testing  Ignition  System, 
Cause  of  Shocks,  232. 

Testing  Ignition  Timer,  234. 

Testing  Induction  Coils,  230. 

Testing  Lubricants  for  Adul- 
terants,  211. 

Testing  Lubricants  for  Gums, 
211. 

Testing  Magneto,  231. 

Testing  Oil  for  Viscosity,  210. 

The  Balanced  Ration,  358. 

The  Dirt  Menace,  'j'j. 

The  Farm  Wood  Pile,  375. 

The  Intake  Port,  Function  of, 
85. 

Thermal   Efficiency,   503. 

Threshing  by  Gas  Power,  475. 

Throttling  Governor,  Action 
of,   137- 

Tight  and  Loose  Pulleys, 
321. 

Timing  Valves,  Object  of,  91. 

Timing  Ignition,  131. 

Traction  Engine,  Its  First  Ac- 
complishment,   2^^. 

Traction   Engine,   Its   Message, 

Tractive  Horsepower,  253. 

Tractor  Advantages  That  Ap- 
peal to  Farmer,  280. 

Tractor  Farming,  Cost  of,  288. 

Tractor,   Harrowing  with,  280. 

Tractor,  Learning  to  Guide, 
306. 

Tractor  Operation,  in  Mud- 
holes,  308. 


Tractor  Operation,  in  Sand, 
308. 

Tractor  Operation,  on  Bridges, 
309. 

Tractor  Operation,  on  Hills, 
309- 

Tractor  Operation,  Speed  Al- 
lowable,   310. 

Tractor  Operation,  When 
Turning,  307. 

Tractor,   Plowing  with,  280. 

Tractor,  Preparing  to  Start, 
303. 

Tractor,  Use  as  Cultivator, 
287. 

Tractors,  Best  Engine  for, 
293- 

Tractors,  Forms  of  Trans- 
mission, 291. 

Tractors  for  Small  Farms,  283. 

Tractors,  Gasoline,  Power  of, 
298. 

Tractors,  General  Care  of,  311, 

Tractors,  General  Construc- 
tion of,  291. 

Tractors,  Getting  Out  of  Mud- 
holes,  307. 

Tractors,   Hauling  with,  310. 

Tractors,    Home-made,  301. 

Tractors,  Steam  and  Gasoline, 
Compared,  292. 

Tractors,  Use  of  Clutch,  294. 

Tractors,  Wheels  for,  296. 

Transmission    Gears,    Face    of, 

295- 
Transmission  of  Tractors,  291. 
Treatment  of  Packing,  70. 
Troubles,       Gasoline      Engine, 

Classified,  223. 
Troubles     of     Loose     Pulleys, 

321. 
Truing   Piston   Rings,   'jd. 


526 


Index 


Two  Boys  and  Motorcycle, 
464. 

Two-Cycle  and  Four-Cycle  En- 
gines  Compared,  46. 

Types  of  Centrifugal  Pumps, 
407. 

Type  of   Pulleys,  317. 

Tying  Engine  to  Foundation, 
164. 


U 


Unique   Fruit  Gatherer,  466. 
Units    of    Heat    Measurement, 

502. 
Utilizing  Animal  Power,  34. 
Utilizing   Waste   Heat,    147. 
Use  and  Abuse  of  Aluffler,  97. 
Use  of  Foundation  Blue  Print, 

162. 
Use    of    Pulleys,    318. 
Useful  Belt  Kink,  339. 


Vacuum  Cleaner,  Engine  Op- 
erated, 426. 

Vacuum  Process  of  Milking 
Cows,  428. 

Vacuum  Type  Engine  Founda- 
tion,   171. 

Value  of  Gas  Compression,  56. 

Value  of  Thorough  Spraying, 
387. 

Valve    Grinding,    Method,   95. 

Valve  Grinding;  When  and 
How,  94. 

Valve   System,  Inspecting,  91. 

Valve  Timing,  91. 

Valve  Timing,  General  Rule 
for,  94. 

Valve  Vagaries,  98. 


Variety  of  Lubricants  Needed, 
205. 

Ventilation  of  Engine  Room, 
176. 

Vermorel  Nozzles  for  Spray- 
ing,   396. 

Viscosity  of  Lubricants,  203. 

Vital  Parts  of  Gasoline  En- 
gine, 47. 

W 

Washing  Machines  for  Farm 
Laundry,  419. 

Waste  Heat,   Utilizing,  147. 

Water  Cooled  Gasoline  En- 
gine, 142. 

Water  Cooling,  Amount  of 
Water  Needed;  145. 

Water  Cooling,  Anti-Freezing 
Mixtures,    146. 

Water  Cooling,  Open  Jacket 
]\lethod,    142. 

Water  Cooling  Systems,  Care 
of,   145- 

Water  Cooling,  the  Circulat- 
ing System,  143. 

Water     Needed     for     Cooling, 

145- 

Water,  Quantity  Needed  for 
Irrigation,  402. 

Water  Supply,  Automatic 
Troughs,  363. 

Water  Supply  by  Pressure 
System,  423. 

Water  Supply  by  Storage  Sys- 
tem,  422. 

Water  Systems  for  Farms, 
422. 

What  Five  Horsepower  En- 
gine Will  Do,  249. 

What  Gasoline  Engine  Outfit 
Includes,  262. 


Index 


527 


What  Internal  Combustion  In- 
cludes, 4,3. 

What  Lubricants  Are,  203. 

What  Old  Farm  Wagon  Can 
Do,  455- 

What  Primary  Circuit  In- 
cludes,   129. 

What  Secondary  Circuit  In- 
cludes, 129. 

What  the  Gasoline  Tractor  Is 
Doing,    279. 

What  Two  Horsepower  En- 
gine Will  Do,  249. 

Wheels  for  Tractors,  296. 

When  to  Irrigate,  400. 

Where  to  Irrigate,  399. 

Why  Irrigation  Is  Needed, 
399- 

Why  Four-Cycle  Engine  Is 
Preferred,  47. 

Wire  Belt  Lacing,  343. 

U'iring  of  Ignition  System, 
130. 

Wood    Sawing   Outfit,    Setting 

Up,  379. 


Wood  Sawing,  Power  Re- 
quired,   379. 

Work  Bench  for  Engine 
Room,  176. 

Work  of  Horse  While  Plow- 
ing,  281. 

Wood  Sawing,  Drag  Saw  for, 
380. 

Wood  Splitting  by  Power,  386. 

Work  Shop  Engine,  Connect- 
ing to  Work,  370. 

Work  Shop,  Engine  for, 
368. 

Work  Shop  Engine,  Placing, 
368. 

Work  Shop  Equipment,  368. 

Work  Shop,  Ideal  Arrange- 
ment, 369. 

Work  Shop,  Its  Purpose  on 
Farm,  367. 

Work  Shop,  Locating  Ma- 
chines, 371. 

Work  Shop,  Moral  Benefits  of, 
372. 

Worm  Gears,  349. 


^^^s^ 


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SUBJECT     INDEX 


PAGE 

Accidents 18 

Air  Brakes 17,  19 

Arithmetics 20 

Automobiles 3 

Balloons 3 

Bevel  Gears 14 

Boilers 22 

Brazing 3 

Cams 15 

Car  Charts 4 

Change  Gear 14 

Charts 3,  4,  22 

Chemistry 23 

Coal  Mining 23 

Coke 4 

Compressed  Air ^ 5 

Concrete 5 

Cyclopedia 4,  20 

Dictionaries 7 

Dies 7 

Drawing 8,  24 

Drop  Forging 7 

DjTiamo 9,  10.   11 

Electricity 9,  10,  11,  12 

Engines  and  Boilers 22 

Factory  [Management 12 

Flying  Machines 3 

Fuel 13 

Gas  Manufacturing , 14 

Gas  Engines 13,  14 

Gears 14 

Heating,  Electric 9 

Hot  Water  Heating 27 

Horse-Power  Chart 4 

Hydraulics 15 

Ice  Making 15 

India  Rubber 25 

Interchangeable  Manufacturing 20 

Inventions 15 

Knots 15 

Lathe  Work 16 

Lighting  (Electric) 9 

Link  Motion 17 

Liquid  Air 16 

Locomotive  Boilers 18 

Locomotive  Engineering 17,   18,  19 

Machinist's  Books 20,  21,  22 


PAGE 

Manual  Training  22 

Marine  Engines 22 

Marine  Steam  Turbines 29 

Mechanical  Movements 20,  21 

IMetal  Turning 16 

Milling  Machines 21 

Mining 22,  23 

Oil  Engines 13 

Patents 15 

Pattern  Making 23 

Perfumery .- 23 

Pipes 28 

Plumbing  24 

Producer  Gas 13 

Punches 7 

Railroad  Accidents 18 

Receipt  Book 23,  25 

Refrigeration 15 

Rope  Work 15 

Rubber  Stamps 25 

Saws 26 

Sheet  IMetal  Working 7 

Shop  Tools 21 

Shop  Construction 20 

Shop  Management 20 

Sketching  Paper 8 

Smoke  Prevention 13 

Soldering 3 

Splices 15 

Steam  Engineering 26,  27 

Steam  Heating 27 

Steam  Pipes 28 

Steel 28 

Superheated  Steam 17 

Switchboards 9,  11 

Tapers 16 

Telephone 12 

Threads 22 

Tools 20,  22 

Turbines 29 

Ventilation 27 

Valve  Gear 19 

Valve  Setting 17 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear 19 

Watchmaking 29 

Wiring 9,  11,  12 

Wireless  Telephones  and  Telegraphy ....  12 


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AUTOMOBILE 

THE  MODERN  GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILE— ITS  DESIGN,  CONSTRUCTION, 
MAINTENANCE  AND  REPAIR.     By  Victor  W.  Page,  M.  E. 

The  latest  and  most  complete  treatise  on  the  Gasoline  Automobile  ever  issued.  Written 
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BALLOONS   AND   FLYING  MACHINES 

MODEL  BALLOONS  AND  FLYING  MACHINES.  WITH  A  SHORT  ACCOUNT  OF 
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BRAZING  AND  SOLDERING.     By  James  F.  Hobart. 

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CHARTS 


MODERN  SUBMARINE  CHART— WITH  200  PARTS  NUMBERED  AND  NAMED. 

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TRACTIVE   POWER   CHART. 

A  chart  whereby  you  can  find  the  tractive  power  or  drawbar  pull  of  any  locomotive,  without 
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Shows  the  horse  power  of  any  stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter  what  the 
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BOILER  ROOM   CHART.     By  Geo.  L.  Fowler. 

A  Chart — size  14  x  28  inches — showing  in  isometric  perspective  the  mechanisms  belonging 
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CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

HENLEY'S    ENCYCLOPEDIA    OF    PRACTICAL    ENGINEERING    AND     ALLIED 

TRADES.     Edited  by  Joseph  G.  Horner,  A.  M.  I.  E.  M. 

This  set  of  five  volumes  contains  about  2,500  pages  with  thousands  of  illustrations,  including 
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For  complete  set  of  five  volumes,  price        $25.00 

COKE 

COKE— MODERN  COKING  PRACTICE;  INCLUDING  THE  ANALYSIS  OF 
MATERIALS   AND   PRODUCTS.     By  T.  H.  Byrom  and  J.  E.  Christopher. 

A  handbook  for  those  engaged  in  Coke  manufacture  and  the  recovery  of  By-products.  Fully 
illustrated  with  folding  plates.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors,  in  preparing  this  book, 
to  produce  one  which  shall  be  of  use  and  benefit  to  those  who  are  associated  with,  or  inter- 
ested in,  the  modern  developments  of  the  industry.     Contents:   I.  Introductory.     II.  Gen- 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


eral  Classification  of  Fuels.  III.  Coal  Washing.  IV.  The  Sampling  and  Valuation  of  Coal, 
Coke,  etc.  V.  The  Calorific  Power  of  Coal  and  Coke.  VI.  Coke  Ovens.  VII.  Coke  Ovens, 
continued.  VIII.  Coke  Ovens,  continued.  IX.  Charging  and  Discharging  of  Coke  Ovens, 
X.  Cooling  and  Condensing  Plant.  XI.  Gas  Exhausters.  XII.  Composition  and  Analysis 
of  Ammoniacal  Liquor.  XIII.  Working-up  of  Ammoniacal  Liquor.  XIV.  Treatment  of 
Waste  Gases  from  Sulphate  Plants.  XV.  Valuation  of  Ammonium  Sulphate.  XVI.  Direct 
Recovery  of  Ammonia  from  Coke  Oven  Gases.  XVII.  Surplus  Gas  from  Coke  Oven.  Use- 
ful Tables.     Very  fully  illustrated.     Price      .     .     « $3. 50  net 

COMPRESSED   AIR 

COMPRESSED  AIR  IN  ALL  ITS  APPLICATIONS.     By  Gardner  D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  the  most  complete  book  on  the  subject  of  Air  that  has  ever  been  issued,  and  its  thirty- 
five  chapters  include  about  every  phase  of  the  subject  one  can  think  of.  It  may  be  called  an 
encyclopedia  of  compressed  air.  It  is  written  by  an  expert,  who,  in  its  665  pages,  has  dealt 
with  the  subject  in  a  comprehensive  manner,  no  phase  of  it  being  omitted.  Includes  the 
physical  properties  of  air  from  a  vacuum  to  its  highest  pressure,  its  thermodynamics,  com- 
pression, transmission  and  uses  as  a  motive  power;  in  the  Operation  of  Stationary  and  Port- 
able Machinery,  in  Mining,  Air  Tools,  Air  Lifts,  Pumping  of  Water,  Acids,  and  Oils;  the 
Air  Blast  for  Cleaning  and  Painting,  the  Sand  Blast  and  its  Work,  and  the  Numerous  Appli- 
ances in  which  Compressed  Air  is  a  Most  Convenient  and  Economical  Transmitter  of  Power 
for  Mechanical  Work,  Railway  Propulsion,  Refrigeration,  and  the  Various  Uses  to  which 
Compressed  Air  has  been  applied.  Includes  forty-four  tables  of  the  physical  properties  of 
air,  its  compression,  expansion,  and  volumes  required  for  various  kinds  of  work,  and  a  list  of 
patents  on  compressed  air  from  1875  to  date.  Over  500  illustrations,  5th  Edition,  revised  and 
enlarged.     Cloth  bound,  $5.00.     Half  Morocco,  price $6.60 

CONCRETE 

ORNAMENTAL  CONCRETE  WITHOUT  MOLDS.     By  A.  A.  Houghton. 

The  process  for  making  ornamental  concrete  without  molds  has  long  been  held  as  a  secret,  and 
now,  for  the  first  time,  this  process  is  given  to  the  public.  The  book  reveals  the  secret  and  is 
the  only  book  published  which  explains  a  simple,  practical  method  whereby  the  concrete  worker 
is  enabled,  by  employing  wood  and  metal  templates  of  different  designs,  to  mold  or  model  in 
concrete  any  Cornice,  Archivolt,  Column,  Pedestal,  Base  Cap,  Urn  or  Pier  in  a  monolithic 
form — right  upon  the  job.  These  may  be  molded  in  units  or  blocks,  and  then  built  up  to  suit  the 
specifications  demanded.  This  work  is  fully  illustrated,  with  detailed  engravings.    Price  $2.00 

CONCRETE  FROM  SAND  MOLDS.     By  A.  A.  Houghton. 

A  Practical  Work  treating  on  a  process  which  has  heretofore  been  held  as  a  trade  secret  by 
the  few  who  possessed  it,  and  which  will  successfully  mold  every  and  any  class  of  ornamental 
concrete  work.  The  process  of  molding  concrete  with  sand  molds  is  of  the  utmost  practical 
value,  possessing  the  manifold  advantages  of  a  low  cost  of  molds,  the  ease  and  rapidity  of 
operation,  perfect  details  to  all  ornamental  designs,  density,  and  increased  strength  of  the 
concrete,  perfect  curing  of  the  work  without  attention  and  the  easy  removal  of  the  molds  re- 
gardless of  any  undercutting  the  design  may  have.     192  pages.      Fully  illustrated.    Price  $2.00 

CONCRETE   WALL   FORMS.     By  A.  A.  Houghton. 

A  new  automatic  wall  clamp  is  illustrated  with  working  drawings.  Other  types  of  wall 
forms,  clamps,  separators,  etc.,  are  also  illustrated  and  explained 50  cents 

CONCRETE   FLOORS   AND   SIDEWAf^KS.    By  A.   A.    Houghton. 

The  molds  for  molding  squares,  hexagonal  and  many  other  styles  of  mosaic  floor  and  side- 
walk blocks  are  fully  illustrated  and  explained 50  cents 

PRACTICAL   CONCRETE  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.    By  A.  A.  Houghton. 
Complete  working  drawings  and    specifications  are  given  for  several  styles  of  concrete  silos, 
with  illustrations  of   molds  for  monolithic  and  block  silos.     The  tables,  data  and  information 
presented  in  this  book  are  of  the  utmost  value  in  planning  and  constructing  all  forms  of  concrete 
silos 50  cents 

MOLDING  CONCRETE  CHIMNEYS,  SLATE  AND  ROOF  TILES.  By 
A.  A.  Houghton. 

The  manufacture  of  all  types  of  concrete  slate  and  roof  tile  is  fully  treated.  Valuable  data 
on  all  forms  of  reinforced  concrete  roofs  are  contained  within  its  pages.  The  construction  of 
concrete  chimneys  by  block  and  monolithic  systems  is  fully  illustrated  and  described.  A 
number  of  ornamental  designs  of  chimney  construction  with  molds  are  shown  in  this  valu- 
able treatise -     .     .  ....     50  cents 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


MOLDING   AND    CURING   ORNAMENTAL   CONCRETE      ^.v  A  A.  Houghton. 

The  proper  proportions  of  cement  and  aggregates  for  various  linishes,  also  t'le  methods  of 
thoroughly  mixing  and  placing  in  the  molds,  are  fully  treated.  An  exhaustive  treatKe  on  this 
subject  that  every  concrete  worker  will  find  of  daily  use  and  value 50  cents 

CONCRETE  MONUMENTS,  MAUSOLEUMS    AND  BURIAL  VAULTS.      By  A.  A. 

Houghton, 

The  molding  of  concrete  monuments  to  imitate  the  most  expensive  cut  stone  is  explained  in 
this  treatise,  with  working  drawings  ot  easily  built  molds.  Cutting  inscriptions  and  designs 
is  also  fully  treated .50  cents 

MOLDING  CONCRETE  BATH  TUBS,  AQUARIUMS  AND  NATATORIUMS. 

By  A,  A,  Houghton. 

Simple  molds  and  instruction  are  given  for  molding  many  styles  of  concrete  bath  tubs, 
swimming  pools,  etc.  These  molds  are  easily  built  and  permit  rapid  and  successful 
work 50  cents 

CONCRETE  BRIDGES,  CULVERTS  AND  SEWERS.      By  A.  A.  Houghton. 

A  number  of  ornamental  concrete  bridges  with  illustrations  of  molds  are  given.  A  collapsible 
center  or  core  for  bridges,  culverts  and  sewers  is  fully  illustrated  with  detailed  instructions  for 
building  50  cents 

CONSTRUCTING    CONCRETE   PORCHES.     By  A.  A.  Houghton. 

A  number  of  designs  v/ith  working  drawings  of  molds  are  fully  explained  so  any  one  can  easily 
construct  different  styles  of  ornamental  concrete  porches  without  the  purchase  of  expensive 
molds 50  cents 

MOLDING  CONCRETE  FLOWER  POTS,  BOXES,  JARDINIERES,  ETC.  By 
A.  A.  Houghton. 

The  molds  for  producing  many  original  designs  of  flower  pots,  urns,  flower  boxes,  jardinieres, 
etc.,  are  fully  illustrated  and  explained,  so  the  worker  can  easily  construct  and  operate 
same 50  cents 

MOLDING    CONCRETE    FOUNTAINS   AND  LAWN    ORNAMENTS.      By 

A.  A.  Houghton. 

The  molding  of  a  number  of  designs  of  lawn  seats,  curbing,  hitching  posts,  pergolas,  sun  dials 
and  other  forms  of  ornamental  concrete  for  the  ornamentation  of  lawns  and  gardens,  is 
fully  illustrated  and  described 50  cents 

CONCRETE   FOR   THE   FARM   AND   SHOP.     By  A.  A.  Houghton. 

The  molding  of  drain  tile,  tanks,  cisterns,  fence  posts,  stable  floors,  hog  and  poultry  houses 
and  all  the  purposes  for  which  concrete  is  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  farmer  are  numbered 
among  the  contents  of  this  handy  volume 60  cents 

POPULAR  HANDBOOK  FOR  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  USERS.  By  Myron 
H.  Lswis, 

This  is  a  concise  treatise  of  the  principles  and  methods  employed  in  the  manufacture  and  use 
of  cement  in  all  classes  of  modern  works.  The  author  has  brought  together  in  this  work  all 
the  salient  matter  of  interest  to  the  user  of  concrete  and  its  many  diversified  products.  The 
matter  is  presented  in  logical  and  systematic  order,  clearly  written,  fully  illustrated  and  free 
from  involved  mathematics.  Everything  of  value  to  the  concrete  user  is  given  including  kinds 
of  cement  employed  in  construction,  concrete  architecture,  inspection  and  testing,  water- 
proofing, coloring  and  painting,  rules,  tables,  working,  and  cost  data.  The  book  comprises 
thirty-three  chapters,  as  follows: 

Introductory.  Kinds  of  Cements  and  How  Thev  are  IMade.  Properties,  Testing  and 
Requirements  of  Hydraulic  Cement.  Concrete  and  its  Properties.  Sand,  Broken  Stone  and 
Gravel  for  Concrete.  How  to  Proportion  the  INIaterials.  How  to  Mix  and  Place  Concrete. 
Forms  for  Concrete  Construction.  The  Architectural  and  Artistic  Possibilities  of  Concrete. 
Concrete  Residences.  Alortars,  Plasters  and  Stucco  and  How  to  Use  Them.  The  Artistic 
Treatment  of  Concrete  Surfaces.  Concrete  Building  Blocks.  The  Making  of  Ornamental 
Concrete.  Concrete  Pipes,  Fences,  Posts.  Etc.  Essential  Features  and  Advantages  of  Reen- 
forced  Concrete.  How  to  Design  Reenforced  Concrete  Beams.  Slabs  and  Columns.  Ex- 
planations of  the  Methods  and  Principles  in  Designing  Reenforced  Concrete  Beams  and 
Slabs.    Systems  of  Reenforcement  Employed.    Reenforced  Concrete  in  Factory  and  General 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

Building  Construction.  Concrete  in  Foundation  Worlf.  Concrete  Retaining  Walls,  Abut- 
ments, and  Bulkheads.  Concrete  Arches  and  Arch  Bridges.  Concrete  Beam  and  Girder 
Bridges.  Concrete  in  Sewerage  and  Drainage  Works.  Concrete  Tanks,  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs. Concrete  Sidewalks,  Curbs  and  Pavements.  Concrete  in  Railroad  Constructions. 
The  Utility  of  Concrete  on  the  Farm.  The  Waterproofing  of  Concrete  Structure.  Grout 
or  Liquid  Concrete  and  Its  Use.  Inspection  of  Concrete  Work.  Cost  of  Concrete  Work. 
Some  of  the  special  features  of  the  book  are:  1.  The  Attention  Paid  to  the  Artistic  and 
Architectural  Side  of  Concrete  Work.  2.  The  Authoritative  Treatment  of  the  Problem 
of  Waterproofing  Concrete.  3.  An  Excellent  Summary  of  the  Rules  to  be  Followed  in 
Concrete  Construction.  4.  The  Valuable  Cost  Data  and  Useful  Tables  given.  A  valuable 
Addition  to  the  Library  of  Every  Cement  and  Concrete  User.  Price $2.50 

WATERPROOFING  CONCRETE.     By  Myron  H.  Lewis. 

Modern  Methods  of  Waterproofing  Concrete  and  Other  Structures.  A  condensed  statement 
of  the  Principles,  Rules,  and  Precautions  to  be  Observed  in  Waterproofing  and  Damp- 
proofing  Structures  and  Structural  Materials.  Paper  binding.   Illustrated.    Price.  .50  cents 

DICTIONARIES 

STANDARD  ELECTRICAL  DICTIONARY.     By  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

An  indispensable  work  to  all  interested  in  electrical  science.  Suitable  alike  for  the  student 
and  professional.  A  practical  hand-book  of  reference  containing  definitions  of  about  5,000 
distinct  words,  terms  and  phrases.  The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and  include  every 
term  used  in  electrical  science.  Recently  issued.  An  entirely  new  edition.  Should  be  in 
the  possession  of  all  who  desire  to  keep  abreast  with  the  progress  of  this  branch  of  science. 
Complete,  concise  and  convenient.     682  pages,     393  illustrations.     Price     ....     $3.00 

DIES— METAL   WORK 

DIES:  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  FOR  THE  MODERN  WORKING  OF 
SHEET  METALS.     By  J.  V.  Woodworth. 

A  most  useful  book,  and  one  which  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  engaged  in  the  press  working 
of  metals;  treating  on  the  Designing,  Constructing,  and  Use  of  Tools,  Fixtures  and  Devices, 
together  with  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be  used  in  the  Power  Press,  for  the  cheap  and 
rapid  production  of  the  great  variety  of  sheet  metal  articles  now  in  use.  It  is  designed  as  a 
guide  to  the  production  of  sheet  metal  parts  at  the  minimum  of  cost  with  the  maximum  of 
output.  The  hardening  and  tempering  of  Press  tools  and  the  classes  of  work  which  may  be 
produced  to  the  best  advantage  by  the  use  of  dies  in  the  power  press  are  fully  treated.  Its 
505  illustrations  show  dies,  press  fixtures  and  sheet  metal  working  devices,  the  descriptions 
of  which  are  so  clear  and  practical  that  all  metal-working  mechanics  will  be  able  to  understand 
how  to  design,  construct  and  use  them.  Many  of  the  dies  and  press  fixtures  treated  were 
either  constructed  by  the  author  or  under  his  supervision.  Others  were  built  by  skilful 
raechanics  and  are  in  use  in  large  sheet  metal  establishments  and  machine  shops.  Price    $3.00 

PUNCHES,  DIES  AND  TOOLS  FOR  MANUFACTURING  IN  PRESSES.      By  J.  V. 

Woodworth. 

This  work  is  a  companion  volume  to  the  author's  elementary  work  entitled  "Dies,  Their 
Construction  and  Use."  It  does  not  go  into  the  details  of  die  making  to  the  extent  of  the 
author's  previous  book,  but  gives  a  comprehensive  review  of  the  field  of  operations  carried  on 
by  presses.  A  large  part  of  the  information  given  has  been  drawn  from  the  author's  personal 
experience.  It  might  well  be  termed  an  Encyclopedia  of  Die  Making,  Punch  Making,  Die 
Sinking,  Sheet  Metal  Working,  and  Making  of  Special  Tools,  Sub-presses,  Devices  and  Mechani- 
cal Combinations  for  Punching,  Cutting,  Bending,  Forming,  Piercing,  Drawing,  Compressing 
and  Assembling  Sheet  Metal  Parts,  and  also  Articles  of  other  Materials  in  Machine  Tools. 
2d    Edition.     Price $4.00 

DROP  FORGING,  DIE  SINKING  AND  MACHINE  FORMING  OF  STEEL.      By  J.  V. 

Woodworth. 

This  is  a  practical  treatise  on  Modern  Shop  Practice,  Processes.  Methods,  ISIachines.  Tools, 
and  Details,  treating  on  the  Hot  and  Cold  Machine-Forming  of  Steel  and  Iron  into  Finished 
shapes;  Together  with  Tools,  Dies,  and  Machinery  involved  in  the  manufacture  of  Duplicate 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

Forgings  and  Interchangeable  Hot  and  Cold  Pressed  Parts  from  Bar  and  Sheet  Metal. 
This  book  fills  a  demand  of  long  standing  for  information  regarding  drop  forging,  die-sinking 
and  machine  forming  of  steel  and  the  shop  practice  involved,  as  it  actually  exists  in  the 
modem  drop  forging  shop.  The  processes  of  die-sinking  and  force-making,  which  are  thor- 
oughly described  and  illustrated  in  this  admirable  work,  are  rarely  to  be  foimd  explained  in 
such  a  clear  and  concise  manner  as  is  here  set  forth.  The  process  of  die-sinking  relates  to 
the  engraving  or  sinking  of  the  female  or  lower  dies,  such  as  are  used  for  drop  forgings,  hot 
and  cold  machine  forging,  swedging  and  the  press  working  of  metals.  The  process  of  force- 
making  relates  to  the  engraving  or  raising  of  the  male  or  upper  dies  used  in  producing  the 
lower  dies  for  the  press-forming  and  machine-forging  of  duphcate  parts  of  metal. 

In  addition  to  the  arts  above  mentioned  the  book  contains  explicit  information  regarding 
the  drop  forging  and  hardening  plants,  designs,  conditions,  equipment,  drop  hammers, 
forging  machines,  etc.,  machine  forging,  hydraulic  forging,  autogenous  welding  and  shop 
practice.  The  book  contains  eleven  chapters,  and  the  information  contained  in  these  chapters 
is  just  what  will  prove  most  valuable  to  the  forged  metal  worker.  All  operations  described 
in  the  work  are  thoroughly  illustrated  by  means  of  perspective  half-tones  and  outline  sketches 
of  the  machinery  employed.    300  detailed  illustrations.    Price $2.50 

DRAWING— SKETCHING    PAPER 


LINEAR  PERSPECTIVE  SELF-TAUGHT.  By  Herman  T.  C.  Kraus. 
This  work  gives  the  theory  and  practice  of  linear  perspective,  as  used  in  architectural,  engi- 
neering, and  mechanical  drawings.  Persons  taking  up  the  study  of  the  subject  by  themselves 
win  be  able  by  the  use  of  the  instruction  given  to  readily  grasp  the  subject,  and  by  reason- 
able practice  become  good  perspective  draftsmen.  The  arrangement  of  the  book  is  good ; 
the  plate  is  on  the  left-hand,  while  the  descriptive  text  follows  on  the  opposite  page,  so  as  to 
be  readily  referred  to.  The  drawings  are  on  sufficiently  large  scale  to  show  the  work  clearly 
and  are  plainly  figured.  The  whole  work  makes  a  very  complete  course  on  perspective  draw- 
ing, and  will  be  found  of  great  value  to  architects,  civil  and  mechanical  engineers,  patent 
attorneys,  art  designers,  engravers,  and  draftsmen $2.50 

PRACTICAL  PERSPECTIVE.     By  Richards  and  Colvin. 

Shows  just  how  to  make  all  kinds  of  mechanical  drawings  in  the  only  practical  perspective 
isometric.  Makes  everything  plain  so  that  any  mechanic  can  understand  a  sketch  or  drawing 
in  this  way.  Saves  time  in  the  drawing  room,  and  mistakes  in  the  shops.  Contains  practical 
examples  of  various  classes  of  work.     3rd  Edition 50  cents 

SELF-TAUGHT    MECHANICAL     DRAWING     AND      ELEMENTARY     MACHINE 

DESIGN.  By  F-  L.  Sylvester,  M.E.,  Draftsman.,  with  additions  by  Erik  Oberq, 

associate  editor  of  "Machinery." 

This  is  a  practical  treatise  on  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Machine  Design,  comprising  the 
first  principles  of  geometric  and  mechanical  drawing,  workshop  mathematics,  mechanics, 
strength  of  materials  and  the  calculations  and  design  of  machine  details.  The  author's 
aim  has  been  to  adapt  this  treatise  to  the  requirements  of  the  practical  mechanic  and  young 
draftsman  and  to  present  the  matter  in  as  clear  and  concise  a  manner  as  possible.  To 
meet  the  demands  of  this  class  of  students,  practically  all  the  important  elements  of  machine 
design  have  been  dealt  with,  and  in  addition  algebraic  formulas  have  been  explained,  and 
the  elements  of  trigonometry  treated  in  the  manner  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  prac- 
tical man.  The  book  is  divided  into  20  chapters,  and  in  arranging  the  material,  mechan- 
ical drawing,  pure  and  simple,  has  been  taken  up  first,  as  a  thorough  xmderstanding  of  the 
principles  of  representing  objects  facilitates  the  further  study  of  mechanical  subjects.  This 
is  followed  by  the  mathematics  necessary  for  the  solution  of  the  problems  in  machine  de- 
sign which  are  presented  later,  and  a  practical  introduction  to  theoretical  mechanics  and 
the  strength  of  materials.  The  various  elements  entering  into  machine  design,  such  as  cams, 
gears,  sprocket  wheels,  cone  pulleys,  bolts,  screws,  couphngs,  clutches,  shafting  and  fly- 
wheels have  been  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  possible  the  use  of  the  work  as  a  text- 
book for  a  continuous  course  of  study.  It  is  easily  comprehended  and  assimilated  even  by 
students  of  limited  previous  training.  330  pages,  215  engravmgs.    Price.     .     .     .     $2.00 

A  NEW  SKETCHING  PAPER. 

A  new  specially  ruled  paper  to  enable  you  to  make  sketches  or  drawings  in  isometric  perspective 
without  any  figuring  or  fussing.  It  is  being  used  for  shop  details  as  well  as  for  assembly 
drawings,  as  it  makes  one  sketch  do  the  work  of  three,  and  no  workman  can  help  seeing  just 
what  is  wanted.  Pads  of  40  sheets,  6x9  inches,  25  cents.  Pads  of  40  sheets,  9  x  12  inches. 
50  cents;  40  sheets,  12x18,  Price $1.00 

8 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 
ELECTRICITY 

ARITHMETIC  OF  ELECTRICITY.     By  Prof.  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

A  practical  treatise  on  electrical  calculations  of  all  kinds  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules,  all  of  the 
simplest  forms,  and  involving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each  rule  illustrated  by  one  or  more 
practical  problems,  with  detailed  solution  of  each  one.  This  book  is  classed  among  the  most 
useful  works  published  on  the  science  of  electricity  covering  as  it  does  the  mathematics  of 
electricity  in  a  manner  that  will  attract  the  attention  of  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  alge- 
braical formulas.     20th  Edition.      160  pages.     Price $1.00 

COMMUTATOR  CONSTRUCTION.     By  Wm.  Baxter,  Jr. 

The  business  end  of  any  dynamo  or  motor  of  the  direct  current  type  is  the  commutator.  This 
book  goes  into  the  designing,  building,  and  maintenance  of  commutators,  shows  how  to  locate 
troubles  and  how  to  remedy  them;  everyone  who  fusses  with  dynamos  needs  this.      S5  cents 

DYNAMO  BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS,  OR  HOW  TO  CONSTRUCT  A  FIFTY- WATT 
DYNAMO.     By  Arthur  J.  Weed,  Member  of  N.  Y.  Electrical  Society. 

A  practical  treatise  showing  In  detail  the  construction  of  a  small  dynamo  or  motor,  the  entire 
machine  work  of  which  can  be  done  on  a  small  foot  lathe.  Dimensioned  working  drawings 
are  given  for  each  piece  of  machme  work  and  each  operation  is  clearly  described.  This 
machine,  when  used  as  a  dynamo,  has  an  output  of  fifty  watts;  when  used  as  a  motor  it  will 
drive  a  small  drill  press  or  lathe.  It  can  be  used  to  drive  a  sewing  machine  on  any  and  all 
ordinary  work.  The  book  is  illustrated  with  more  than  sixty  original  engravings  showing 
the  actual  construction  of  the  different  parts.  Among  the  contents  are  chapters  on  1.  Fifty 
Watt  Dynamo.  2.  Side  Bearing  Rods.  3.  Field  Punchings.  4.  Bearings.  5.  Commu- 
tator. 6.  Pulley.  7.  Brush  Holders.  8.  Connection  Board.  9.  Armature  Shaft.  10. 
Armature.  11.  Armatiire  Winding.  12.  Field.  Winding,  13.  Connecting  and  Starting. 
Price,  paper,  50  cents.     Cloth $1.00 

ELECTRIC  FURNACES  AND  THEIR  INDUSTRIAL  APPLICATIONS.    By  J.  Wright 

This  is  a  book  which  will  prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people;  the  manufacturer  who 
desires  to  know  what  product  can  be  manufactured  successfully  in  the  electric  furnace,  the 
chemist  who  wishes  to  post  himself  on  the  electro-chemistry,  and  the  student  of  science  who 
merely  looks  into  the  subject  from  curiosity.  The  book  is  not  so  scientific  as  to  be  of  use 
only  to  the  technologist,  nor  so  unscientific  as  to  suit  only  the  tyro  in  electro-chemistry;  it 
is  a  practical  treatise  of  what  has  been  done,  and  of  what  is  being  done,  both  experimentally 
and  commercially  with  the  electric  furnace. 

In  important  processes  not  only  are  the  chemical  equations  given,  but  complete  thermal  data 
are  set  forth  and  both  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace  and  the  cost  of  the  product  are  worked 
out,  thus  giving  the  work  a  solid  commercial  value  aside  from  its  efficacy  as  a  work  of  reference. 
The  practical  features  of  furnace  building  are  given  the  space  that  the  subject  deserves.  The 
forms  and  refractory  materials  used  in  the  linings,  the  arrangement  of  the  connections  to  the 
electrodes,  and  other  important  details  are  explained.  288  pages.  New  Revised  Edition. 
Fully  illustrated.    Price $3.00 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  AND  HEATING  POCKET  BOOK.     By  Sydney  F.  Walker. 

This  book  puts  in  convenient  form  useful  information  regarding  the  apparatus  which  is  likely 
to  be  attached  to  the  mains  of  an  electrical  company.  Tables  of  units  and  equivalents  are 
included  and  useful  electrical  laws  and  formulas  are  stated. 

One  section  is  devoted  to  dynamos,  motors,  transformers  and  accessory  apparatus;  another 
to  accumulators,  another  to  switchboards  and  related  equipment,  a  fourth  to  a  description 
of  various  systems  of  distribution,  a  fifth  section  to  a  discussion  of  instruments,  both  for 
portable  use  and  switchboards;  another  section  deals  with  electric  lamps  of  various  types 
and  accessory  appliances,  and  the  concluding  section  is  given  up  to  electric  heating  apparatus. 
In  each  section  a  large  number  of  commercial  types  are  described,  frequent  tables  of  dimen- 
sions being  included.  A  great  deal  of  detail  information  of  each  line  of  apparatus  is  given 
and  the  illustrations  shown  give  a  good  idea  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  apparatus  under 
discussion.  The  book  also  contains  much  valuable  information  for  the  central  station  engi- 
neer.    438  pages.     300  engravings.     Bound  in  leather  pocket  book  form.     Price     .       $3.00 

ELECTRIC  WIRING,  DIAGRAMS  AND  SWITCHBOARDS.   By  Newton  Harrison. 

i  thorouglily  practical  treatise  covering  the  subject  of  Electric  Wiring  in  all  its  branches, 
including  explanations  and  diagrams  which  are  thoroughly  explicit  and  greatly  simplify 
the  subject.  Practical  e very-day  problems  in  wiring  are  presented  and  the  method  of 
obtaining  intelligent  results  clearly  shown.     Only  arithmetic  is  used.     Ohm's  law  is  given 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

a  simple  explanation  with  reference  to  wiring  for  direct  and  alternating  currents.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  drop  of  potential  in  circuits  is  shown  with  its  various  applications.  The 
simple  circuit  is  developed  with  the  position  of  mains,  feeders  and  branches;  their  treat- 
ment as  a  part  of  a  wiring  plan  and  their  employment  in  house- wiring  clearly  illustrated. 
Some  simple  facts  about  testing  are  included  in  connection  with  the  wiring.  Molding 
and  conduit  work  are  given  careful  consideration;  and  switchboards  are  systematically 
treated,  built  up  and  illustrated,  showing  the  purpose  they  serve,  for  connection  with  the 
circmts,  and  to  shunt  and  compoimd  wound  machines.  The  simple  principles  of  switchboard 
construction,  the  development  of  the  switchboard,  the  connections  of  the  various  instru- 
ments including  the  lightning  arrester,  are  also  plainly  set  forth. 

Alternating  current  wiring  is  treated,  with  explanations  of  the  power  factor,  conditions 
calUng  for  various  sizes  of  wire  and  a  simple  way  of  obtaining  the  sizes  for  single-phase,  two- 
phase  and  three-phase  circuits.  This  is  the  only  complete  work  issued  showing  and  telling 
you  what  you  should  know  about  direct  and  alternating  current  wiring.  It  is  a  ready  refer- 
ence. The  work  is  free  from  advanced  technicalities  and  'mathematics,  arithmetic  being  used 
throughout.  It  is  in  every  respect  a  handy,  well-written,  instructive,  comprehensive 
volume  on  wiring  for  the  wireman,  foreman,  contractor,  or  electrician.  272  pages;  1051  illus- 
trations.     Price $1.50 

ELECTRIC  TOY  MAKING,  DYNAMO  BUILDING,  AND  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CON- 
STRUCTION.    By  Prof.  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

This  work  treats  of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys,  electrical  apparatus,  motors,  dynamos 
and  instruments  in  general,  and  is  designed  to  bring  within  the  reach  of  ydurig  and  old  the 
manufacture  of  genuine  and  useful  electrical  appliances.  The  work  is  especially  designed  for 
amateurs  and  young  folks. 

Thousands  of  our  young  people  are  daily  experimenting,  and  busily  engaged  in  making  electrical 
toys  and  apparatus  of  various  kinds.  The  present  work  is  just  what  is  wanted  to  give  the 
much  needed  information  in  a  plain,  practical  manner,  with  illustrations  to  make  easy  the 
carrying  out   of    the  work.     19th  Edition.     Price $1.00 

ELECTRICIAN'S  HANDY  BOOK.     By  Prof.  T.  O 'Conor  Sloane. 

This  work  of  768  pages  is  intended  for  the  practical  electrician  who  has  to  make  things  go. 
The  entire  field  of  electricity  is  covered  within  its  pages.  Among  some  of  the  subjects  treated 
are:  The  Theory  of  the  Electric  Current  and  Circuit,  Electro-Chemistry,  Primary  Batteries, 
Storage  Batteries,  Generation  and  Utilization  of  Electric  Powers,  Alternating  Current,  Arma- 
ture Winding,  Dynamos  and  Motors,  Motor  Generators,  Operation  of  the  Central  Station 
Switchboards,  Safety  Appliances,  Distribution 'of  Electric  Light  and  Power,  Street  Mains, 
Transformers,  Arc  and  Incandescent  Lighting,  Electric  Measurements,  Photometry,  Electric 
Railways,  Telephony,  Bell-Wiring,  Electro-Platmg,  Electric  Heating,  Wireless  Telegraphy,  etc. 
It  contains  no  useless  theory;  everything  is  to  the  point.  It  teaches  you  just  what  you  want 
to  know  about  electricity.  It  is  the  standard  work  published  on  the  subject.  Forty-one 
chapters,  610  engravings,  handsomely  bound  in  red  leather  with  title  and  edges  in  gold.     Price: 

$3.50 

ELECTRICITY  IN  FACTORIES  AND  WORKSHOPS,  ITS  COST  AND  CONVENIENCE. 

By  Arthur  P.  Haslam. 

A  practical  book  for  power  producers  and  power  users  showing  what  a  convenience  the  electric 
motor,  in  its  various  forms,  has  become  to  the  modern  manufacturer.  It  also  deals  with  the 
conditions  which  determine  the  cost  of  electric  driving,  and  compares  this  with  other  methods 
of  producing  and  utilizing  power. 

Among  the  chapters  contained  in  the  book  are:  The  Direct  Current  Motor;  The  Alternating 
Current  Motor:  The  Starting  and  Speed  Regulation  of  Electric  Motors;  The  Rating  and 
Efficiency  of  Electric  Motors;  The  Cost  of  Energy  as  Affected  by  Conditions  of  Working,  The 
Question  for  the  Small  Power  User;  Independent  Generating  Plants;  Oil  and  Gas  Engine 
Plants;  Steam  Plants;  Power  Station  Tariff s ;  The  Use  of  Electric  Power  in  Textile  Factories; 
Electric  Power  in  Printing  Works;  The  Use  of  Electric  Power  in  Engineering  Workshops 
Miscellaneous  Application  of  Electric  Power;  The  Installation  of  Electric  Motors;  The  Lighting 
of  Industrial  Establishments.     312  pages.     Very  fully  illustrated.     Price       ....     $2.50 

ELECTRICITY  SIMPLIFIED.     By  Prof.  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

The  object  of  "Electricity  Simplified"  is  to  make  the  subject  as  plain  as  possible  and  to  show 
what  the  modern  conception  of  electricity  is;  to  show  how  two  plates  of  different  metals 
immersed  in  acid  can  send  a  message  around  the  globe;  to  explain  how  a  bundle  of  copper  wire 
rotated  by  a  steam  engine  can  be  the  agent  in  lighting  our  streets,  to  tell  what  the  volt,  ohm 
and  ampere  are.  and  what  high  and  low  tension  mean;  and  to  answer  the  questions  that 
perpetually  arise  in  the  mind  in  this  age  of  electricity.    172  pages.    lUustratSf".    Price  $  1.00 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

HOUSE  WIRING.     By  Thomas  W.  Poppe. 

This  work  describes  and  illustrates  the  actual  installation  of  Electric  Light  Wiring,  the  manner 
in  which  the  work  should  be  done,  and  the  method  of  doing  it.  The  book  can  be  conveniently 
carried  in  the  pocket.  It  is  intended  for  the  Electrician,  Helper  and  Apprentice.  It 
solves  ah  Wiring  Problems,  and  contains  nothing  that  conflicts  with  the  rulings  of  the  Nation- 
al Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  It  gives  just  the  information  essential  to  the  Successful 
Wiring  of  a  Building.  Among  the  svibjects  treated  are:  Locating  the  Meter.  Panel  Boards. 
Switches.  Plug  Receptacles.  Brackets.  Ceihng  Fixtures.  The  Meter  Connections.  The 
Feed  Wires.  The  Steel  Armored  Cable  System.  The  Flexible  Steel  Conduit  System.  The 
Ridig  Conduit  System.  A  digest  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters'  rules  relating 
to  metallic  wiring  systems.  Various  switching  arrangements  explained  and  diagrammed. 
The  easiest  method  of  testing  the  Three  and  Four-way  circuits  explained.  The  grounding 
of  all  metallic  wiring  systems  and  the  reason  for  doing  so  shown  and  explained.  The  in- 
sulation of  the  metal  parts  of  lamp  flxtm-es  and  the  reason  for  the  same  described  and 
illustrated.    125  pages.    Fully  illustrated.    Flexible  cloth.     Price 60  cents 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL  ELECTRICIAN.  By  Prof.  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

Every  young  man  who  wishes  to  become  a  successful  electrician  should  read  this  book.  It  tells 
in  simple  language  the  surest  and  easiest  way  to  become  a  successful  electrician.  The  studies 
to  be  followed,  methods  of  work,  field  of  operation  and  the  requirements  of  the  successful 
electrician  are  pointed  out  and  fully  explained.  Every  young  engineer  will  find  this  an  ex- 
cellent stepping-stone  to  more  advanced  works  on  electricity  which  he  must  master  before 
success  can  be  attained.  Many  young  men  become  discouraged  at  the  very  outstart  bv 
attempting  to  read  and  study  books  that  are  far  beyond  their  comprehension.  This  book 
serves  as  the  connecting  link  between  the  rudiments  taught  in  the  public  schools  and  the  real 
study  of  electricity.  It  is  interesting  from  cover  to  cover.  Fifteenth  edition.  202  pages. 
Illustrated.     Price         $1.00 

MANAGEMENT   OF   DYNAMOS.     By  Lummis-Paterson. 

A  handbook  of  theory  and  practice.  This  work  is  arranged  in  three  parts.  The  first  part 
covers  the  elementary  theory  of  the  dynamo.  The  second  part,  the  construction  and  action 
of  the  different  classes  of  dynamos  in  common  use  are  described;  while  the  third  part  relates 
to  such  matters  as  affect  the  practical  management  and  working  of  dynamos  and  motors. 
The  following  chapters  are  contained  in  the  book:  Electrical  Units;  Magnetic  Principles; 
Theory  of  the  Dynamo;  Armature;  Armature  in  Practice;  Field  Magnets;  Field  Magnets  in 
Practice;  Regulating  Dynamos;  Coupling  Dynamos;  Installation,  Running,  and  Maintenance 
of  Dynamos;  Faults  in  Dynamos;  Faults  in  Armatures;  Motors.  292  pages.  117  illustra- 
tions.    Price $1.50 

STANDARD  ELECTRICAL  DICTIONARY.     By  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

An  indispensable  work  to  all  interested  in  electrical  science.  Suitable  alike  for  the  student 
and  professional.  A  practical  hand-book  of  reference  containing  definitions  of  about  5,000 
distinct  words,  terms  and  phrases.  The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and  include  every 
term  used  in  electrical  science.  Recently  issued.  An  entirely  new  edition.  Should  be  in  the 
possession  of  all  who  desire  to  keep  abreast  with  the  progesss  of  this  branch  of  science.  In 
its  arrangement  and  typography  the  book  is  very  convenient.  The  word  or  term  defined  is 
printed  in  black-faced  type  which  readily  catches  the  eye,  while  the  body  of  the  page  is  In 
smaller  but  distinct  type.  The  definitions  are  well  worded,  and  so  as  to  be  understood  by 
the  non-technical  reader.  The  general  plan  seems  to  be  to  give  an  exact,  concise  definition, 
and  then  amphfy  and  explain  in  a  more  popular  way.  Synonyms  are  also  given,  and  refer- 
ences to  other  words  and  plu-ases  are  made.  A  very  complete  and  accurate  index  of  fifty 
pages  is  at  the  end  of  the  volume;  and  as  tliis  index  contains  all  synonyms,  and  as  all  phrases 
are  indexed  in  every  reasonable  combination  of  words,  reference  to  the  proper  place  in  the 
body  of  the  book  is  readily  made.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  how  far  a  book  of  this  character 
is  to  keep  the  dictionary  form,  and  to  what  extent  it  may  assume  the  encyclopedia  form. 
For  some  pm-poses.  concise,  exactly  worded  definitions  are  needed;  for  other  purposes,  more 
extended  descriptions  are  required.  This  book  seeks  to  satisfy  both  demands,  and  does  it 
with  considerable  success.  Complete,  concise,  and  convenient.  682  pages.  393  illustra- 
tions.    Twelfth  edition.     Price $3.00 

SWITCHBOARDS.     By  William  Baxter,  Jr. 

This  book  appeals  to  every  engineer  and  electrician  who  wants  to  know  the  practical  side  of 
things.  It  takes  up  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  dynamos,  connections  and  circuits  and  shows 
by  diagram  and  illustration  just  how  the  switchboard  should  be  connected.  Includes  direct 
and  alternating  current  boards,  also  those  for  arc  lighting,  incandescent,  and  power  circuits. 
Special  treatment  on  high  voltage  boards  for  power  transmission.  2d  Edition.  190  pages. 
Illustrated.     Price $1.50 

II 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

TELEPHONE    CONSTRUCTION,    INSTALLATION,    WIRING,    OPERATION    AND 

MAINTENANCE.     By  W.  H.  Radcliffe  and  H.  C.  Gushing. 

This  book  gives  the  principles  of  construction  gnd  operation  of  both  the  Bell  and  Independent 
instruments;  approved  methods  of  installing  and  wiring  them;  the  means  of  protecting  them 
from  lightning  and  abnormal  currents;  their  connection  together  for  operation  as  series  or 
bridging  stations;  and  rules  for  their  inspection  and  maintenance.  Line  wiring  and  the  wir- 
ing and  operation  of  special  telephone  systems  are  also  treated. 

Intricate  mathematics  are  avoided,  and  all  apparatus,  circuits  and  systems  are  thoroughly 
described.  The  appendix  contains  definitions  of  vmits  and  terms  used  in  the  text.  Selected 
wiring  tables,  which  are  very  helpful,  are  also  included.  Among  the  subjects  treated  are 
Construction,  Operation,  and  installation  of  Telephone  Instruments,  Inspection  and  Main- 
tenance of  Telephone  Instruments;  Telephone  Line  Wiring;  Testing  Telephone  Line  Wires 
and  Cables;  Wiring  and  Operation  of  Special  Telephone  Systems,  etc.  100  pages,  125  illus- 
trations  $1.00 

WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY    AND    TELEPHONY    SIMPLY  EXPLAINED. 

By  Alfred  P.  Morgan. 

This  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  complete  and  comprehensible  treatises  on  the  subject 
ever  published,  and  a  close  study  of  its  pages  will  enable  one  to  master  all  the  details  of  the 
wireless  transmission  of  messages.  The  author  has  fiUed  a  long  felt  want  and  has  succeeded 
in  furnishing  a  lucid,  comprehensible  explanation  in  simple  language  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  wireless  telegraphy  and  telephony. 

Among  the  contents  are:  Introductory;  Wireless  Transmission  and  Receptior? — The 
Aerial  System,  Earth  Connections — The  Transmitting  Apparatus,  Spark  Coils  and  Trans- 
formers, Condensers,  Helixes,  Spark  Gaps,  Anchor  Gaps,  Aerial  Switches — The  Receiving 
Apparatus,  Detectors,  etc. — Tuning  and  Coupling,  Tuning  Coils,  Loose  Couplers,  Variable 
Condensers,  Directive  Wave  Systems — Miscellaneous  Apparatus,  Telephone  Receivers. 
Range  of  Stations,  Static,  Interference — Wireless  Telephones,.  Sound  and  Sound  Waves,  The 
Yocal  Cords  and  Ear — Wireless  Telephones,  How  Soimds  are  changed  into  Electric  Waves — 
Wireless  Telephones.  The  Apparatus — Summary.     200  pages.    150  engravings.    Price  $1.00 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONES  AND  HOW  THEY  WORK.    By  James  Erskine-Murray. 

This  work  is  free  from  elaborate  details  and  aims  at  giving  a  clear  survey  of  the  way  in  which 
Wireless  Telephones  work.  It  is  intended  for  amateur  workers  and  for  those  whose  knowledge 
of  electricity  is  slight.  Chapters  contained:  How  We  Hear;  Historical;  The  Conversion  of 
Sound  into  Electric  Waves;  Wireless  Transmission;  The  Production  of  Alternating  Currents 
of  High  Frequency;  How  the  Electric  Waves  are  Radiated  and  Received;  The  Receiving 
Instruments;  Detectors;  Achievements  and  Expectations;  Glossary  of  Technical  Words, 
Cloth.     Price $1.00 

WIRING  A  HOUSE.     By  Herbert  Pratt. 

Shows  a  house  already  built;  tells  just  how  to  start  about  wiring  it;  where  to  begin;  what 
wire  to  use;  how  to  run  it  according  to  Insurance  Rules;  in  fact  just  the  information  you  need. 
Directions  apply  equally  to  a  shop.     Fourth  edition 25  cents 

FACTORY  MANAGEMENT,  ETC. 


MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

By  O.  E.  Perrigo,  M.E. 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufacturing  plant  from 
the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished  product  is  shipped. 
By  a  careful  study  of  its  thirty-two  chapters  the  practical  man  may  economically  build, 
efficiently  equip,  and  successfully  manage  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufacturing  estab- 
ishment.  Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of  modern  shop  buildings, 
the  re-building  and  re-organization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction  of  modern  shop  methods, 
time  and  cost  system.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated  by  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical 
shop  men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want  facts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all  around 
book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  It  is  a  practical  book  for  practical  men,  from  the  apprentice 
in  the  shop  to  the  president  in  the  office.  It  minutely  describes  and  illustrates  the  most  simole 
and  yet  the  most  efficient  time  and  cost  system  yet  devised.     Price $5.00 

12 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

FUEL 

COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVENTION  OF  SMOKE.  By  Wm.  M.  Barr. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  the  generation  of  heat  by  the  combus- 
tion of  the  common  fuels  foimd  in  the  United  States,  and  deals  particularly  with  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  the  economic  and  smokeless  combustion  of  bituminous  coals  in  Stationary 
and  Locomotive  Steam  Boilers. 

The  presentation  of  this  important  subject  is  systematic  and  progressive.  The  arrangement 
of  the  book  is  in  a  series  of  practical  questions  to  which  are  appended  accurate  answers, 
which  describe  in  language,  free  from  technicalities,  the  several  processes  involved  in  the 
furnace  combustion  of  American  fuels;  it  clearly  states  the  essential  requisites  for  perfect 
combustion,  and  points  out  the  best  methods  for  furnace  construction  for  obtaining  the  great- 
est quantity  of  heat  from  any  given  quality  of  coal.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated. 
Price y! $  1 .00 

SMOKE   PREVENTION    AND    FUEL   ECONOMY.     By  Booth  and  Kershaw. 

A  complete  treatise  for  all  interested  in  smoke  prevention  and  combustion,  being  based  on 
the  German  work  of  Ernst  SchmatoUa,  but  it  is  more  than  a  mere  translation  of  the  German 
treatise,  much  being  added.  The  authors  show  as  briefly  as  possible  the  principles  of  fuel 
combustion,  the  methods  which  have  been  and  are  at  present  in  use,  as  well  as  the  proper 
scientific  methods  for  obtaining  all  the  energy  in  the  coal  and  burning  it  witliout  smoke. 
Considerable  space  is  also  given  to  the  examination  of  the  waste  gases,  and  several  of  the 
representative  English  and  American  mechanical  stoker  and  similar  appliances  are  described. 
The  losses  carried  away  in  the  waste  gases  are  thoroughly  analyzed  and  discussed  in  the  Ap- 

gendix,  and  abstracts  are  also  here  given  of  various  patents  on  combustion  apparatus.     The 
ook  is  complete  and   contains  much  of  value  to  all  who  have  charge  of  large  plants.     194 
pages.     Illustrated.     Price $2.60 

GAS  ENGINES  AND   GAS 

GASOLINE  ENGINES  :  THEIR  OPERATION,  USE  AND  CARE.     By  A.  Hyatt 

Verrill. 

The  Simplest,  Latest  and  IVIost  Comprehensive  popular  work  published  on  Gasoline  Engines 
describing  what  the  GasoUne  engine  is;  its  construction  and  operation;  how  to  install  it; 
how  to  select  it;  how  to  use  it  and  how  to  remedy  troubles  encountered.  Intended  for  owners. 
Operators  and  Users  of  GasoUne  Motors  of  all  kinds.  This  work  fully  describes  and  illus- 
trates the  various  types  of  Gasoline  engines  used  in  Motor  Boats,  Motor  Vehicles  and 
Stationary  Work.  The  parts,  accessories  and  Appliances  are  described,  with  chapters  on 
ignition,  fuel,  lubrication,  operation  and  engine  troubles.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the 
care,  operation  and  repair  of  motors  with  useful  hints  and  suggestions  on  emergency  re- 
pairs and  make-shifts.  A  complete  glossary  of  technical  terms  and  an  alphabetically  ar- 
ranged table  of  troubles  and  their  symptoms  form  most  valuable  and  unique  features  of  this 
manual.  Nearly  every  illustration  in  the  book  is  original,  having  been  made  by  the  author. 
Every  page  is  full  of  interest  and  value.  A  book  which  you  cannot  afford  to  be  without.  320 
Nearly  150  specially  made  engravings.     Price $1.50 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL  ENGINES.     By  Gardner  D.  Hiscox. 

Just  issued,  20th  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  Every  user  of  a  gas  engine  needs  this  book. 
Simple,  instructive,  and  right  up-to-date.  The  only  complete  work  on  the  subject.  Tells 
all  about  the  running  and  management  of  gas,  gasoline  and  oil  engines,  as  designed  and  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States.  Explosive  motors  for  stationary,  marine  and  vehicle  power  are 
fully  treated,  together  with  illustrations  of  their  parts  and  tabulated  sizes,  also  their  care  and 
running  are  included.  Electric  ignition  by  induction  coil  and  jump  spark  are  fully  explained 
and  illustrated,  including  valuable  information  on  the  testing  for  economy  and  power  and  the 
erection  of  power  plants. 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  in  regard  to  the  installation  ani 
management  of  gasoline  motors  is  given  in  full,  suggesting  the  .safe  installation  of  explosive 
motor  power.  A  list  of  United  States  Patents  issued  on  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil  engines  and  their 
adjuncts  from  1875  to  date  is  included.     484  pages.      410  engravings     Price     .     .     .        $2.50 

MODERN  GAS  ENGINES  AND  PRODUCER  GAS  PLANTS.    By  R.  E.  Mathot,  M.E. 

A  guide  for  the  gas  engine  designer,  user,  and  engineer  in  the  construction,  selection,  purchase 
installation,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  gas  engines.  More  than  one  book  on  gas  engines 
has  been  written,  but  not  one  has  thus  far  even  encroached  on  the  field  covered  by  this  book. 
Above  all  Mr.  Mathot's  work  is  a  practical  guide.     Recognizing  the  need  of  a  volume  that 

13 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

would  assist  the  gas  engine  user  in  understanding  thoroughly  the  motor  upon  which  he  depends 
for  power,  the  author  has  discussed  his  subject  without  the  help  of  any  mathematics  and 
without  elaborate  theoretical  explanations.  Every  part  of  the  gas  engine  is  described  in  detail, 
tersely,  clearly,  with  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  requirements  of  the  mechanic.  Helpful 
suggestions  as  to  the  purchase  of  an  engine,  its  installation,  care,  and  operation  form  a  most 
\aluable  feature  of  the  work.     320  pages.     175  detailed  illustrations.     Price      .     .     .     $2.50 

GAS  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION,  OR   HOW  TO   BUILD  A  HALF-HORSE-POWER 

GAS  ENGINE.     By  Parsell  and  Weed. 

A  practical  treatise  of  300  pages  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of  the  action  of  Gas 
Engines  of  various  types  and  the  design  and  construction  of  a  half-horse  power  Gas  Engine,  with 
illustrations  of  the  work  in  actual  progress,  together  with  the  dimensioned  working  drawings 
giving  clearly  the  sizes  of  the  various  details;  for  the  student,  the  scientific  investigator  and  the 
amateur  mechanic. 

Tnis  book  treats  of  the  subject  more  from  the  standpoint  of  practice  than  that  of  theory.  The 
principles  of  operation  of  Gas  Engines  are  clearly  and  simply  described  and  then  the  actual 
construction  of  a  half-horse  power  engine  is  taken  up,  step  by  step,  showing  in  detail  the  making 
of  the  Gas  Engine.     3d  Edition.     300  pages.     Price $2.50 

THE  GASOLINE  ENGINE  ON  THE  FARM:    ITS   OPERATION,  REPAIR 

AND   USES.     By  Xeno  W.  Putnam. 

This  is  a  practical  treatise  on  the  Gasoline  and  Kerosene  engine  intended  for  the  man  who 
wants  to  know  just  how  to  manage  his  engine  and  how  to  apply  it  to  all  kinds  of  farm  work 
to  the  best  advantage. 

The  book  includes  selecting  the  most  suitable  engine  for  farm  work,  its  most  convenient  and 
efficient  installation,  with  chapters  on  troubles,  their  remedies  and  how  to  avoid  them. 
The  care  and  management  of  the  farm  tractor  in  plowing,  harrowing,  harvesting  and  road 
grading  are  fully  covered;  also  plain  directions  are  given  for  handling  the  tractor  on  the  road. 
Special  attention  is  given  to  relieving  farm  life  of  its  drudgery  by  applying  power  to  the 
disagreeable  small  tasks  which  must  otherwise  be  done  by  hand.  Many  homemade  con- 
trivances for  cutting  wood,  supplying  kitchen,  garden  and  barn  with  water,  loading,  hauling 
and  unloading  hay,  delivering  grain  to  the  bins  or  the  feed  trough  are  included;  also  full 
directions  for  making  the  engine  milk  the  cows,  churn,  wash,  sweep  the  house  and  clean  the 
windows,  etc.  Very  fully  illustrated  with  drawings  of  working  parts  and  cuts  showing 
Stationary.  Portable  and  Tractor  Engines  doing  all  kinds  of  farm  work.  300  pages.  Nearly 
150  engravings.     12mo.    Price $1.50 

CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS   MANUFACTURE.     By  H.  M.  Royles. 

This  book  covers  points  likely  to  arise  in  the  ordinary  course  of  the  duties  of  the  engineer  or 
manager  of  a  gas  works  not  large  enough  to  necessitate  the  employment  of  a  separate  chemical 
staff.  It  treats  of  the  testing  of  the  raw  materials  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminat- 
ing coal  gas,  and  of  the  gas  produced.  The  preparation  of  standard  solutions  is  given  as  well 
as  the  chemical  and  physical  examination  of  gas  coal  including  among  its  contents — Prepa- 
rations of  Standard  Solutions,  Coal,  Furnaces,  Testing  and  P^egulation.  Products  of  Car- 
bonization. Analysis  of  Crude  Coal  Gas.  Analysis  of  Lime.  Ammonia.  Analysis  of  Oxide 
of  Iron.  Naphthalene.  Analysis  of  Fire-Bricks  and  Fire-Clay.  Weldom  and  Spent  Oxide. 
Photometry  and  Gas  Testing.  Carburetted  Water  Gas.  Metropolis  Gas.  Miscellaneous 
Extracts.     Useful  Tables $4.50 

GEARING  AND   CAMS 

BEVEL   GEAR   TABLES.     By  D.  Ag.  Engstrom. 

A  book  that  will  at  once  commend  itself  to  mechanics  and  draftsmen.  Does  away  with  all 
the  trigonometry  and  fancy  figuring  on  bevel  gears  and  makes  it  easy  for  anyone  to  lay  them 
out  or  make  them  just  right.  There  are  36  full-page  tables  that  show  every  necessary  dimen- 
sion for  all  sizes  or  combinations  you're  apt  to  need.  No  puzzling  figuring  or  guessing. 
Gives  placing  distance,  all  the  angles  (including  cutting  angles),  and  the  correct  cutter  to  use. 
A  copy  of   this   prepares   you  for   anything   in  the    bevel  gear  line.     66   pages.     .     $1.00 

CHANGE   GEAR   DEVICES.     By  Oscar  E.  Perrigo. 

A  practical  book  for  every  designer,  draftsman,  and  mechanic  interested  in  the  invention  and 
development  of  the  devices  for  feed  changes  on  the  different  machines  requiring  such  mechan- 
ism. All  the  necessary  information  on  this  subject  is  taken  up,  analyzed,  classified,  sifted, 
and  concentrated  for  the  use  of  busy  men  who  have  not  the  time  to  go  through  the  masses 
of  irrelevant  matter  with  which  such  a  subject  is  usually  encumbered  and  select  such  infor- 
mation as  will  be.  useful  to  them. 

It  shows  just  what  has  been  done,  how  it  has  been  done,  when  it  was  done,  and  who  did  it. 
It  saves  time  in  hunting  up  patent  records  and  re-inventing  old  ideas.     88  pages.     $1.00 

14 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


DRAFTING  OF  CAMS.     By  Louis  Rouillion. 

problem  unless  you 
any  kind  of  cam  yc 

HYDRAULICS 


The  laying  out  of  cams  is  a  serious  problem  unless  you  know  how  to  go  at  it  right.     This  puts 
you  on  the  right  road  for  practically  any  kind  of  cam  you  are  likely  to  run  up  against.  25  cents 


HYDRAULIC   ENGINEERING.     By  Gardner  D.  Hiscox. 

A  treatise  on  the  properties,  power,  and  resources  of  water  for  all  purposes.  Including  the 
measurement  of  streams,  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes  or  conduits;  the  horse-power  of  falling 
water;  turbine  and  impact  water-wheels,  wave  motors,  centrifugal,  reciprocating,  and  air- 
lift pumps.    With  300  figures  and  diagrams  and  36  practical  tables. 

All  who  are  interested  in  water- works  development  will  find  this  book  a  useful  one,  because 
it  is  an  entirely  practical  treatise  upon  a  subject  of  present  importance,  and  cannot  fail  in 
having  a  far-reaching  influence,  and  for  tills  reason  should  have  a  place  in  the  working  library 
of  every  engineer.  Among  the  subjects  treated  are:  Historical — Hydraulics,  Properties  of 
Water;  Measurement  of  the  flow  of  Streams;  Flow  from  Subsurface  orifices  and  nozzles; 
Flow  of  water  in  Pipes;  Siphons  of  various  kinds;  Dams  and  Great  Storage  Reservoirs; 
City  and  Town  Water  Supply;  Wells  and  their  reenforcement ;  Air  lift  methods  of  raising 
water ;  artesian  wells ;  Iri'igation  of  Arid  districts ;  Water  Power,  Water  Wheels ;  Pumps  and 
Pumping  Machinery;  Reciprocating  Pumps;  Hydraulic  Power  Transmission;  Hydraulic 
Mining;  Canals;  Ditches;  Conduits  and  Pipe  Lines;  Marine  Hydraulics;  Tidal  and  Sea 
Wave  power,  etc.  320  pages.  Price $4.00 

ICE    AND    REFRIGERATION 


POCKET  BOOK  OF  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE  MAKING.  By  A.  J.  Wallis- 
Taylor. 

This  is  one  of  the  latest  and  most  comprehensive  reference  books  published  on  the  subject  of 
refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains  the  properties  and  refrigerating  effect  of  the  different 
fluids  in  use,  the  management  of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the  construction  and  insulation 
of  cold  rooms  with  their  required  pipe  surface  for  different  degrees  of  cold;  freezing  mixtures 
and  non-freezing  brines,  temperatures  of  cold  rooms  for  all  kinds  of  provisions,  cold  storage 
charges  for  all  classes  of  goods,  ice  making  and  storage  of  ice,  data  and  memoranda  for  constant 
reference  by  refrigerating  engineers,  with  nearly  one  hundred  tables  containing  valuable 
references  to  every  fact  and  condition  required  in  the  installment  and  operation  of  a  refrigerat- 
ing plant.     Illustrated.    (5th  Edition,  revised.)     Price $1.50 

INVENTIONS— PATENTS 


This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to  inventors  in  perfecting  their  inventions,  taking  out  their 
patents  and  disposing  of  them.  It  is  not  in  any  sense  a  Patent  Solicitor's  Circular,  nor  a 
Patent  Broker's  Advertisement.  No  advertisements  of  any  description  appear  in  the  work. 
It  is  a  book  containing  a  quarter  of  a  century's  experience  of  a  successful  inventor,  together 
with  notes  based  upon  the  experience  of  many  other  inventors. 

Among  the  subjects  treated  in  this  work  are:  How  to  Invent.  How  to  Secure  a  Good 
Patent.  Value  of  Good  Invention.  How  to  exhibit  an  Invention.  How  to  Interest 
Capital.  How  to  Estimate  the  Value  of  a  Patent.  Value  of  Design  Patents.  Value  of 
Foreign  Patents.  Value  of  Small  Inventions.  Advice  on  SelUng  Patents.  Advice  on  the 
Formation  of  Stock  Companies.  Advice  on  the  Formation  of  Limited  Liability  Companies. 
Advice  on  Disposing  of  Old  Patents.  Advice  as  to  Patent  Attorneys.  Advice  as  to  SeUing 
Agents.  Forms  of  Assignments.  License  and  Contracts.  State  Laws  Concerning  Patent 
Rights.  1900  Census  of  the  United  States  by  counties  of  over  10,000  population.  Revised 
edition.     120  pages.     Price $1.00 

KNOTS 

KNOTS,  SPLICES  AND  ROPE  WORK.     By  A.  Hyatt  Verrill. 

This  is  a  practical  book  giving  complete  and  simple  directions  for  making  all  the  most  use- 
ful and  ornamental  knots  in  common  use.  with  chapters  on  Splicing,  Pointing,    Seizing, 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

Serving,  etc.  This  book  is  fully  illustrated  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  original  engravings, 
which  show  how  each  kxiot,  tie  or  spUce  is  formed  and  its  appearance  when  finished.  The 
book  wUl  be  found  of  the  greatest  value  to  Campers,  Yachtsmen,  Travelers,  Boy  Scouts, 
in  fact  to  anyone  having  occasion  to  use  or  handle  rope  or  knots  for  any  purpose.  The  book 
is  thoroughly  reliable  and  practical  and  is  not  only  a  guide  but  a  teacher.  It  is  the  standard 
work  on  the  subject.  Among  the  contents  are:  1.  Cordage,  Kinds  of  Rope.  Construction 
of  Rope,  Parts  of  Rope  Cable  and  Bolt  Rope.  Strength  of  Rope,  Weight  of  Rope.  2.  Sim- 
ple knots  and  Bends.  Terms  used  in  Handhng  Rope.  Seizing  Rope.  3.  Ties  and  Hitches. 
4.  Noose,  Loops  and  IMooring  Knots.  5.  Shortenings,  Grommets  and  Selvages.  6.  Lash- 
ings. Seizings  and  SpUces.  7.  Fancy  Knots  and  Rope  Work.  128  pages.  150  original 
engravings.     Price 60  cents 

LATHE   WORK 

MODERN  AMERICAN  LATHE  PRACTICE.     By  Oscak  E.  Perrigo. 

This  is  a  new  book  from  cover  to  cover,  and  the  only  complete  American  work  on  the  subject 
written  by  a  man  who  knows  not  only  how  work  ought  to  be  done,  but  who  also  knows 
how  to  do  it,  and  how  to  convey  this  knowledge  to  others.  It  is  strictly  up-to-date  in  its 
descriptions  and  illustrations,  which  represent  the  very  latest  practice  in  lathe  and  boring 
mill  operations  as  well  as  the  construction  of  and  latest  developments  in  the  manufactiire 
of  these  important  classes  of  machine  tools. 

Lathe  history  and  the  relations  of  the  Lathe  to  manufacturing  are  given ;  also  a  description 
of  the  various  devices  for  Feeds  and  Thread  Cutting  mechanisms  from  early  efforts  in  this 
direction  to  the  present  time.  Lathe  design  is  thoroughly  discussed,  including  Back  Gearing, 
Driving  Cones,  Thread  Cutting  Gears,  and  all  the  essential  elements  of  the  modern  Lathe. 
The  classification  of  Lathes  is  taken  up,  giving  the  essential  differences  of  the  several  types 
of  Lathes,  including,  as  is  usually  imderstood,  Engine  Lathes,  Bench  Lathes,  Speed  Lathes, 
Forge  Lathes,  Gap  Lathes,  Pulley  Lathes,  Forming  Lathes,  Multiple  Spindle  Lathes,  Rapid 
Reduction  Lathes,  Precision  Lathes,  Turret  Lathes,  Special  Lathes,  Electrically  Driven 
Lathes,  etc.    424  pages.    314  illustrations.    Price $2.50 

PRACTICAL   METAL   TURNING.     By  Joseph  G.  Horner. 

This  important  and  practical  subject  is  treated  in  a  full  and  exhaustive  manner  and  nothing 
of  importance  is  omitted.  The  principles  and  practice  and  all  the  different  branches  of  Turn- 
ing are  considered  and  well  illustrated.  All  the  different  kinds  of  Chucks  of  usual  forms,  as 
well  as  some  unusual  kinds,  are  shown.  A  feature  of  the  book  is  the  important  section  de- 
voted to  modern  Turret  practice;  Boring  is  another  subject  which  is  treated  fully;  and  the 
chapter  on  Tool  Holders  illustrates  a  large  number  of  representative  types.  Thread  Cutting 
is  treated  at  reasonable  length;  and  the  last  chapter  contains  a  good  deal  of  information 
relating  to  the  High-Speed  Steels  and  their  work.  The  numerous  tools  used  by  machinists 
are  illustrated,  and  also  the  adjuncts  of  the  lathe.  In  fact,  the  entire  subject  is  treated  in 
such  a  thorough  manner  as  to  make  this  book  the  standard  one  on  the  subject.  It  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  manager,  engineer,  and  machinist  as  well  as  to  the  student,  amateur,  and 
experimental  man  who  desires  to  keep  up-to-date.     400  pages,  fully  illustrated.    Price     $3.50 

TURNING  AND  BORING  TAPERS.     By  Fred  H.  Colvin. 

There  are  two  ways  to  turn  tapers;  the  right  way  and  one  other.  This  treatise  has  to  do  with 
the  right  way;  it  tells  you  how  to  start  the  work  properly,  how  to  set  the  lathe,  what  tools  to 
use  and  how  to  use  them,  and  forty  and  one  other  little  things  that  you  should  know.  Fourth 
edition 25  cents 


LIQUID  AIR 


LIQUID  AIR  AND  THE  LIQUEFACTION  OF  GASES.     By  T.  O'Conor  Sloane. 

This  book   gives  the  historv  of  the  theory,  discovery,  and  manufacture  of  Liquid  Air,  and 

contains   an  illustrated  description  of  all  the  experiments  that  have  excited  the  wonder  of 

audiences   all  over  the  country.     It  shows  how  liquid  air,  like  water,  is  carried  hundreds  of 

miles  and  is  handled  in  open  buckets.     It  tells  what  may  be  expected  from  it  in  the  near 

future. 

A  book   that  renders  simple  one  of  the  most  perplexing  chemical  problems  of  the  century. 

Startling  developments  illustrated  by  actual  experiments.' 

It  is  not  only  a  work  of  scientific  interest  and  authority,  but  is  intended  for  the  general  reader, 

being  written    in  a  popular  style — easily  understood  by  every  one.     Second  edition.     365 

pages.     Price       $2.00 

i6 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACl  ICAL  BOOKS 
LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERING 

AIR-BRAKE   CATECHISM.     By  Robert  H.  Blackall. 

This  book  is  a  standard  text  book.  It  covers  the  Westinghouse  Air-Brake  Equipment,  in- 
cluding the  No.  5  and  the  No.  6  E.  T  Locomotive  Brake  Equipment;  the  K  (Quick-Service) 
Triple  Valve  for  Freight  Service;  and  the  Cross-Compound  Pump.  The  operation  of  all  parts 
of  the  apparatus  is  explained  in  detail,  and  a  practical  way  of  finding  their  peculiarities  and 
defects,  with  a  proper  remedy,  is  given.  It  contains  2,000  questions  with  their  answers, 
which  will  enable  any  railroad  man  to  pass  any  examination  on  the  subject  of  Air  Brakes. 
Endorsed  and  used  by  air-brake  instructors  and  examiners  on  nearly  every  railroad  in  the 
United  States,  25th  Edition.  350  pages,  fully  illustrated  with  folding  plates  and  dia- 
grams  $2.00 

AMERICAN    COMPOUND    LOCOMOTIVES.     By  Fred.  H.  Colvin. 

The  only  book  on  compounds  for  the  engineman  or  shopman  that  shows  in  a  plain,  practical 
way  the  various  features  of  compound  locomotives  in  use.  Shows  how  they  are  made,  what 
to  do  when  they  break  down  or  balk.  Contains  sections  as  follows: — A  Bit  of  History.  The- 
ory of  Compounding  Steam  Cylinders.  Baldwin  Two-Cylinder  Compound.  Pittsburg  Two- 
Cylinder  Compound.  Rhode  Island  Compound.  Richmond  Compound.  Rogers  Compound. 
Schenectady  Two-Cylinder  Compound.  Vauclain  Compound.  Tandem  Compounds.  Bald- 
win Tandem.  The  Colvin- Wight  man  Tandem.  Schenectady  Tandem.  Balanced  Loco- 
motives. Baldwin  Balanced  Compound.  Plans  for  Balancing.  Locating  Blows.  Break- 
downs. Reducing  Valves.  Drifting,  Valve  Motion.  Disconnecting,  Power  of  Compound 
Locomotives.     Practical  Notes. 

Fully  illustrated  '^and  containing  ten  special  "Duotone"  inserts  on  heavy  Plate  Paper,  show- 
ing different  types  of  Compounds.      142  pages.     Price $1.00 

APPLICATION  OF  HIGHLY  SUPERHEATED  STEAM   TO  LOCOMOTIVES.     By 

Robert  Garbe. 

A  practical  book.  Contains  special  chapters  on  Generation  of  Highly  Superheated  Steam; 
Superheated  Steam  and  the  Two-Cylinder  Simple  Engine;  Compounding  and  Superheating; 
Designs  ofj  Locomotive  Superheaters;  Constructive  Details  of  Locomotives  using  Highly 
Superheated  Steam;  Experimental  and  Working  Results.  Illustrated  with  folding  plates 
and  tables.     Price    .     , $3.60 

COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVENTION  OF  SMOKE. 
By  Wm.  M.  Barr, 

This  book  has  been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  the  generation  of  heat  by  the  combus- 
tion of  the  common  fuels  found  in  the  United  States,  and  deals  particularly  with  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  the  economic  and  smokeless  combustion  of  bituminous  coal  in  Stationary 
and  Locomotive  Steam  Boilers. 

The  presentation  of  this  important  subject  is  systematic  and  progressive.  The  arrangement 
of  the  book  is  in  a  series  of  practical  questions  to  which  are  appended  accurate  answers, 
which  describe  in  language,  free  from  technicalities,  the  several  processes  involved  in  the 
furnace  combustion  of  American  fuels;  it  clearly  states  the  essential  requisites  for  perfect 
combustion,  and  points  out  the  best  methods  of  furnace  construction  for  obtaining  the 
greatest  quantity  of  heat  from  any  given  quality  of  coal.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated 
Price $1.00 

DIARY  OF  A  ROUND  HOUSE  FOREMAN.    By  T.  S.  Reilly    . 

This  is  the  greatest  book  of  railroad  experiences  ever  published.  Containing  a  fund  of  infor- 
mation and  suggestions  along  the  line  of  handling  men,  organizing,  etc.,  that  one  cannot  afford 
to  miss.     176  pages.     Price $1.00 

LINK  MOTIONS,  VALVES  AND  VALVE  SETTING.  By  Fred  H.  Colvin,  Associate 
Editor  of  "American  Machinist." 

A  handy  book  for  the  engineer  or  machinist  that  clears  up  the  mysteries  of  valve  setting. 
Shows  the  different  valve  gears  in  use,  how  they  work,  and  why.  Piston  and  slide  valves 
of  different  types  are  illustrated  and  explained.  A  book  that  every  railroad  man  in  the  mo- 
tive power  department  ought  to  have.  Contains  chapters  on  Locomotive  Link  Motion, 
Valve  Movements,  Setting  Slide  Valves,  Analysis  by  Diagrams,  Modern  Practice,  Slip  of 
Block,  Slide  Valves,  Piston  Valves,  Setting  Piston  Valves,  Joy-Allen  Valve  Gear,  Walschaert 
Valve  Gear,  Gooch  Valve  Gear,  Alfree-Hubbell  Valve  Gear,  etc.,  etc.  Fully  illustrated. 
Pnee , 50  cents 

17 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

LOCOMOTIVE   BOILER   CONSTRUCTION.     By  Frank  A.  Kleinhans. 

The  construction  of  boilers  in  general  Is  treated,  and  following  this,  the  locomotive  boiler 
is  taken  up  in  the  order  in  which  its  various  parts  go  through  the  shop.  Shows  all  types  of 
boilers  used;  gives  details  of  construction;  practical  facts,  such  as  life  of  riveting,  punches 
and  dies;  work  done  per  day,  allowance  for  bending  and  flanging  sheets,  and  other  data. 
Locomotive  boilers  present  more  difficulty  in  laying  out  and  building  than  any  other  type, 
and  for  this  reason  the  author  uses  them  as  examples.  Anyone  who  can  handle  them  can 
tackle  anything. 

Contains  chapters  on  Laying  Out  Work;  Flanging  and  Forging;  Punching;  Shearing;  Plate 
Planing;  General  Tables;  Finishing  Parts;  Bending;  Machinery  Parts;  Riveting;  Boiler 
Details;  Smoke  Box  Details;  Assembling  and  Calking;  Boiler  Shop  Machinery,  etc.,  etc. 
There  isn't  a  man  who  has  anything  to  do  with  boiler  work,  either  new  or  repair  work,  who 
doesn't  need  this  book.  The  manufacturer,  superintendent,  foreman,  and  boiler  worker — 
all  need  it.  No  matter  what  the  type  of  boiler,  you'll  find  a  mint  of  information  that  you- 
wouldn't  be  without.      Over  400  pages,  five  large  folding  plates.     Price 53.00 

LOCOMOTIVE  BREAKDOWNS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  By  Geo.  L.  Fowlee. 
Revised  by  Wm.  W.  Wood,  Air-Brake  Instructor.  Just  issued.  Revised  pocket 
edition. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  to  try  and  tell  you  about  every  subject  that  is  covered  in  this  pocket 
edition  of  Locomotive  Breakdowns.  Just  imagine  all  the  common  troubles  that  an  engineer 
may  expect  to  happen  some  time,  and  then  add  all  of  the  unexpected  ones,  troubles  that  could 
occur,  but  that  you  had  never  thought  about,  and  you  will  find  that  they  are  all  treated  with 
the  very  best  methods  of  repair.  Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear  Troubles,  Electric 
Headlight  Troubles,  as  well  as  Questions  and  Answers  on  the  Air  Brake  are  all  included.  294 
pages.      7th  Revised  Edition.     Fully  illustrated $1.00 

LOCOMOTIVE   CATECHISM.     By  Robert  Grimshaw. 

The  revised  edition  of  "Locomotive  Catechism,"  by  Robert  Grimshaw,  is  a  New  Book  from 
Cover  to  Cover.  It  contains  twice  as  many  pages  and  double  the  number  of  illustrations 
of  previous  editions.  Includes  the  greatest  amount  of  practical  information  ever  published 
on  the  construction  and  management  of  modern  locomotives.  Specially  Prepared  Chapters 
on  the  Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear,  the  Air  Brake  Equipment  and  the  Electric  Head 
Light  are  given. 

It  commends  itself  at  once  to  every  Engineer  and  Fireman,  and  to  all  who  are  going  in  for 
examination  or  promotion.  In  plain  language,  with  full  complete  answers,  not  only  all  the 
questions  asked  by  the  examining  engineer  are  given,  but  those  which  the  young  and  less 
experienced  would  ask  the  veteran,  and  which  old  hands  ask  as  "stickers."  It  is  a  veritable 
Encyclopedia  of  the  Locomotive,  is  entirely  free  from  mathematics,  easily  understood  and 
thoroughly  up-to-date.  Contains  over  4,000  Examination  Questions  with  their  Answers. 
825  pages,  437  illustrations  and  three  folding  plates.     28th  Revised  Edition.     .      .     $2.50 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTOR  AND  REFERENCE  BOOK  FOR  LOCOMOTIVE 
FIREMEN  AND  ENGINEERS.     By  Chas.  F.  Lockhart. 

An  entirely  new  book  on  the  Locomotive.  It  appeals  to  every  railroad  man,  as  it  tells  him 
how  things  are  done  and  the  right  way  to  do  them.  Written  by  a  man  who  has  had  years 
of  practical  experience  in  locomotive  shops  and  on  the  road  firing  and  running.  The  infor- 
mation given  in  this  book  cannot  be  found  in  any  other  similar  treatise.  Eight  hundred  and 
fifty-one  questions  with  their  answers  are  included,  which  will  prove  specially  helpful  to 
those  preparing  for  examination.  Practical  information  on:  The  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion of  Locomotives.  Breakdowns  and  their  Remedies;  Air  Brakes  and  Valve  Gears. 
Rules  and  Signals  are  handled  in  a  thorough  manner.  As  a  book  of  reference  it  cannot  be 
excelled.  The  book  is  divided  into  six  parts,  as  follows:  1.  The  Fireman's  Duties.  2. 
General  description  of  the  Locomotive.  3.  Breakdowns  and  their  Remedies.  4.  Air  Brakes. 
5.  Extracts  from  Standard  Rules.  6.  Questions  for  examination.  The  851  questions  have 
been  carefully  selected  and  arranged.  These  cover  the  examinations  required  by  the  different 
railroads.     368  pages.    88  illustrations.     Price $1.50 

PREVENTION  OF  RAILROAD  ACCIDENTS,  OR  SAFETY  IN  RAILROADING. 

By  George  Bradshaw. 

This  book  is  a  heart-to-heart  talk  with  Railroad  Employees,  dealing  with  facts,  not  theories, 
and  showing  the  men  in  the  ranks,  from  every-day  experience,  how  accidents  occur  and  how 
they  may  be  avoided.  The  book  is  illustrated  with  seventy  original  photographs  and  draw- 
ings showing  the  safe  and  \ansafe  methods  of  work.  No  visionary  schemes,  no  ideal  pictures. 
Just  plain  facts  and  Practical  Suggestions  are  given.    Every  railroad  employee  who  reads  the 

i8 


CATALOGUE  OV  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

book  is  a  better  and  safer  man  to  have  in  railroad  service.  It  gives  just  the  information 
which  will  be  the  means  of  preventing  many  injmues  and  deaths.  All  railroad  employees 
should  procure  a  copy,  read  it,  and  do  your  part  in  preventing  accidents.  169  pages.  Pocket 
Size.     Fully  illustrated.     Price 50  cents 

TRAIN  RULE  EXAMINATIONS  MADE  EASY.  By  G.  E.  Collingwood. 
This  is  the  only  practical  work  on  train-rules  in  print.  Every  detail  is  covered,  and  puzzling 
points  are  explained  in  simple,  comprehensive  language,  making  it  a  practical  treatise  for 
the  Train  Dispatcher,  Engineman,  Trainman,  and  all  others  who  ha- e  to  do  with  the  move- 
ments of  trains.  Contains  complete  and  rehable  information  of  the  Standard  Code  of  Train 
Rules  for  single  track.  Shows  Signals  in  Colors,  as  used  on  the  difterent  roads.  Explains 
fully  the  practical  application  of  train  orders,  giving  a  clear  and  definite  understanding  of  all 
orders  which  may  be  used.  The  meaning  and  necessity  for  certain  rules  are  explained  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  student  may  know  beyond  a  doubt  the  rights  conferred  under  any 
orders  he  may  receive  or  the  action  required  by  certain  rules. 

As  nearly  all  roads  require  trainmen  to  pass  regular  examinations,  a  complete  set  of  examina- 
tion questions,  with  their  answers,  are  included.  These  will  enable  the  student  to  pass  the 
required  examinations  with  credit  to  himself  and  the  road  for  which  he  works.  256  pages;. 
Fully  illustrated  with  Train  Signals  in  colors.     Price $1.26 

TRAIN   RULES   AND   DESPATCHING.     By  H.  A.  Dalby. 

Every  railroad  man,  no  matter  what  department  he's  in,  needs  a  copy  of  this  book.  It  givej> 
the  standard  rules  for  both  single  and  double  track,  shows  all  the  signals,  with  colors  wher- 
ever necessary,  and  has  a  list  of  towns  where  time  changes,  with  a  map  showing  the  whole 
country.  The  rules  are  explained  wherever  there  is  any  doubt  about  their  meaning  or  where 
they  are  modified  by  different  railroads.  It's  the  only  practical  book  on  train  rules  in  print. 
Over  220  pages.     Leather  cover.      Price $1.50 

THE  WALSCHAERT  AND  OTHER  MODERN  RADIAL  VALVE  GEARS  FOR 
LOCOMOTIVES.     By  Wm.  W.  Wood. 

If  you  would  thoroughly  understand  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear  you  should  possess  a  copy 
of  this  book,  as  the  author  takes  the  plainest  form  of  a  steam  engine — a  stationary  engine  in 
the  rough,  that  will  only  turn  its  crank  in  one  direction — and  from  it  builds  up — with  the 
reader's  help — a  modern  locomotive  equipped  with  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  complete. 
The  points  discussed  are  clearly  illustrated :  two  large  folding  plates  that  show  the  positions 
of  the  valves  of  both  inside  or  outside  admission  type,  as  well  as  the  links  and  other  parts  of 
the  gear  when  the  crank  is  at  nine  different  points  in  its  revolution,  are  especially  valuable 
in  making  the  movement  clear.  These  employ  sliding  cardboard  models  which  are  contained 
in  a  pocket  in  the  cover. 

The  book  is  divided  into  five  general  divisions,  as  follows:  I.  Analysis  of  the  gear.  II.  De- 
signing and  erecting  the  gear.  III.  Advantages  of  the  gear.  IV.  Questions  and  answers 
relating  to  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear.  V.  Setting  valves  with  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear; 
the  three  primary  types  of  locomotive  valve  motion ;  modern  radial  valve  gears  other  than 
the  Walschaert;  the  Hobart  All-free  valve  and  valve  gear,  with  questions  and  answers  on 
breakdowns;  the  Baker-Pilliod  valve  gear;  the  Improved  Baker-Pilliod  Valve  Gear,  with 
questions  and  answers  on  breakdowns. 

The  questions  with  full  answers  given  will  be  especially  valuable  to  firemen  and  engineers 
in  preparing  for  an  examination  for  promotion.  245  pages.  Third  Revised  Edition. 
Price $1.60 

WESTINGHOUSE  E— T  AIR-BRAKE  INSTRUCTION  POCKET  BOOK.     By  Wm. 

W,  Wood,  Air-Brake  Instructor. 

Here  is  a  book  for  the  railroad  man,  and  the  man  who  aims  to  be  one.  It  is  without  doubt 
the  only  complete  work  published  on  the  Westinghouse  E-T  Locomotive  Brake  Equipment. 
Written  by  an  Air  Brake  Instructor  who  knows  just  what  is  needed.  It  covers  the  subject 
thoroughly.  Everything  about  the  New  Westinghouse  Engine  and  Tender  Brake  Equip- 
ment, including  the  Standard  No.  5  and  the  Perfected  No.  6  Style  of  brake,  is  treated  in  de- 
tail. Written  in  plain  English  and  profusely  illustrated  with  Colored  Plates,  which  enable 
one  to  trace  the  flow  of  pressures  throughout  the  entire  equipment.  The  best  book  ever 
published  on  the  Air  Brake.  Equally  good  for  the  beginner  and  the  advanced  engineer. 
Will  pass  any  one  through  any  examination.  It  informs  and  enlightens  you  on  every  point. 
Indispensable  to  every  engineman  and  trainman. 

Contains  examination  questions  and  answers  on  the  E-T  equipment.  Covering  what  the 
E-T  Brake  is.  How  it  should  be  operated.  What  to  do  when  defective.  Not  a  question  can 
be  asked  of  the  engineman  up  for  promotion  on  either  the  No.  5  or  the  No.  6  E-T  equipment 
that  is  not  asked  and  answered  in  the  book.  If  you  want  to  thoroughly  understand  the  E-T 
equipment  get  a  copy  of  this  book.  It  covers  every  detail.  Makes  Air  Brake  troubles  and 
examinations  easy.     Price $1.60 

19 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

MACHINE   SHOP  PRACTICE 

AMERICAN  TOOL  MAKING  AND  INTERCHANGEABLE  MANUFACTURING.    By 

J.    V.   WOODWORTH. 

A  "shoppy"  book,  containing  no  theorizing,  no  problematical  or  experimental  devices,  there 
are  no  badly  proportioned  and  impossible  diagrams,  no  catalogue  cuts,  but  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  drawings  and  descriptions  of  devices,  the  rich  fruits  of  the  author's  own  experience. 
In  its  500-odd  pages  the  one  subject  only.  Tool  Making,  and  whatever  relates  thereto,  is 
dealt  with.  The  work  stands  without  a  rival.  It  is  a  complete  practical  treatise  on  the 
art  of  American  Tool  Making  and  system  of  interchangeable  manufacturing  as  carried  on 
to-day  in  the  United  States.  In  it  are  described  and  illustrated  all  of  the  different  types 
and  classes  of  small  tools,  fixtures,  devices,  and  special  appliances  which  are  in  general  use 
in  all  machine  manufacturing  and  metal  working  establishments  where  economy,  capacity, 
and  interchangeabilitv  in  the  production  of  machined  metal  parts  are  imperative.  The 
science  of  jig  making  is  exhaustively  discussed,  and  particular  attention  is  paid  to  drill  jigs, 
boring,  profiUng  and  milling  fixtures  and  other  devices  in  which  the  parts  to  be  machined 
are  located  and  fastened  within  the  contrivances.  All  of  the  tools,  fixtures,  and  devices 
illustrated  and  described  have  been  or  are  used  for  the  actual  production  of  work,  such  as 
parts  of  drill  presses,  lathes,  patented  machinery,  typewriters,  electrical  apparatus,  mechan- 
ical appliances,  brass  goods,  composition  parts,  mould  products,  sheet  metal  articles,  di-op 
forgings,  jewelry,  watches,  medals,  coins,  etc.    531  pages.    Price $4.00 

HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA    OF    PRACTICAL    ENGINEERING    AND     ALLIED 

TRADES.     Edited  by  Joseph  G.  Horner,  A.M.L,  M.E. 

This  set  of  five  volumes  contains  about  2,500  pages  with  thousands  of  illustrations,  including 
diagrammatic  and  sectional  drawings  with  full  explanatory  details.  This  work  covers  the 
entire  practice  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering.  The  best  known  expert  in  all  branches 
of  engineering  have  contributed  to  these  volumes.  The  Cyclopedia  is  admirably  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  beginner  and  the  self-taught  practical  man,  as  well  as  the  mechanical  en- 
gineer designer,  draftsman,  shop  superintendent,  foreman,  and  machinist.  The  work  will  be 
found  a  means  of  advancement  to  any  progressive  man.  It  is  encyclopedic  in  scope,  thorough 
and  practical  in  its  treatment  of  technical  subjects,  simple  and  clear  in  its  descriptive  matter, 
and  without  unnecessary  technicalities  or  formulae.  The  articles  are  as  brief  as  may  be  and 
yet  give  a  reasonably  clear  and  explicit  statement  of  the  subject,  and  are  written  by  men  who 
have  had  ample  practical  experience  in  the  matters  of  which  they,  write.  It  tells  you  all  you 
want  to  know  about  engineering  and  tells  it  so  simply,  so  clearly,  so  concisely,  that  one  cannot 
help  but  understand.  As  a  work  of  reference  it  is  without  a  peer.  $6.00  per  volume.  For 
complete  set  of  five  volumes,  price $25.00 

MACHINE  SHOP  ARITHMETIC.     By  Colvin-Cheney. 

This  is  an  arithmetic  of  the  things  you  have  to  do  with  daily.  It  tells  you  plainly  about:  how 
to  find  areas  of  figures;  how  to  find  surface  or  volume  of  balls  or  spheres;  handy  ways  for 
calculating;  about  compound  gearing;  cutting  screw  threads  on  any  lathe;  drillmg  for  taps; 
speeds  of  drills  taps,  emerv  wheels,  grindstones,  milling  cutters,  etc.;  all  about  the  Metric 
system  with  conversion  tables;  properties  of  metals;  strength  of  bolts  and  nuts;  decimal 
equivalent  of  an  inch.  All  sorts  of  machine  shop  figuring  and  1,001  other  things,  any  one  of 
v'hich  ought  to  be  worth  more  than  the  price  of  this  book  to  you,  and  it  saves  you  the  trouble 
of  bothering  the  boss.      6th  Edition.     131  pages.     Price 50  cents 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT. 
By  Oscar  E.  Perrigo. 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern  Machine  Shop  or  Manufacturing  Plant  from 
the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished  product  is  shipped. 
Just  the  book  needed  bv  those  contemplating  the  erection  of  modern  shop  buildings  the  re- 
building and  reorganization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction  of  Modern  Shop  Methods,  time  and 
cost  systems.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated  by  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical  shop 
men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want  facts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all-around 
book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  400  large  quarto  pages.  225  original  and  specially-made 
illustrations.      Price !1>5.UU 

MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES,  MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS  AND  NOVELTIES 
OF  CONSTRUCTION.     By  Gardner  D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  a  supplementarv  volume  to  the  one  apon  mechanical  movements.  Unlike  the  first 
v'olume,  which  is  more  elementary  in  character,  this  volume  contains  illustrations  and  descrip- 
tions of  many  combinations  of  motions  and  of  mechanical  devices  and  appliances  round  in 
different  lines  of  machinery.     Each  device  being  shown  bv  a  line  drawing  with  a  descnption 

20 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


showing  its  working  parts  and  the  method  of  operation.  From  the  multitude  of  devices  de- 
scribed, and  illustrated,  might  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  such  items  as  conveyors  and  elevators, 
Prony  brakes,  thermometers.i  various  types  of  boilers,  solar  engines,  oil-fuel  burners,  condensers, 
evaporators,  Corliss  and  other  valve  gears,  governors,  gas  engines,  water  motors  of  various 
descriptions,  air  ships,  motors  and  dynamos,  automobile  and  motor  bicycles,  railway  block 
signals,  car  couplers,  link  and  gear  motions,  ball  bearings,  breech  block  mechanism  for  heavy 
guns,  and  a  large  accumulation  of  others  of  equal  importance.  1,000  specially  made  engrav- 
ings.    396  octavo  pages.     Price  $2.50 

MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS,  POWERS,  AND  DEVICES.     By  Gardner  D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  a  collection  of  1,890  engravings  of  different  mechanical  motions  and  appliances,  accom- 
panied by  appropriate  text,  making  it  a  book  of  great  value  to  the  inventor,  the  draftsman, 
and  to  all  readers  with  mechanical  tastes.  The  book  is  divided  into  eighteen  sections  or 
chapters  in  which  the  subject  matter  is  classified  under  the  following  heads:  Mechanical  Powers; 
Transmission  of  Power;  Measurement  of  Power,  Steam  Power;  Air  Power  Appliances;  Electric 
Power  and  Construction,  Navigation  and  Roads;  Gearing;  Motion  and  Devices;  Controlling 
Motion;  Horological;  Mining;  Mill  and  Factory  Appliances;  Construction  and  Devices; 
Drafting  Devices:  Miscellaneous  Devices,  etc.     12th  edition.      400  octavo  pages.     Price  $2.50 

MACHINE    SHOP    TOOLS    AND    SHOP    PRACTICE.      By  W.  H.  Vandervoort. 

A  work  of  555  pages  and  673  illustrations,  describing  in  every  detail  the  construction,  operation, 
and  manipulation  of  both  hand  and  machine  tools.  Includes  chapters  on  fiUng,  fitting,  and 
scraping  surfaces;  on  drills,  reamers,  taps,  and  dies;  the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers,  shapers, 
and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters;  gear  cutters  and  gear  cutting;  drilling  machines 
and  drill  work;  grinding  machines  and  their  work;  hardening  and  tempering;  gearing,  belting 
and  transmission  machinery:    useful  data  and  tables.     6th  edition.      Price     .     .     .     ,     $3.00 

THE    MODERN    MACHINIST.     By  John  T.  Usher. 

This  is  a  book  showing,  by  plain  description  and  by  profuse  engravings,  made  expressly  for 
the  work,  all  that  is  best,  most  advanced,  and  of  the  highest  efficiency  in  modern  machine 
shop  practice,  tools,  and  implements,  showing  the  way  by  which  and  through  which,  as  Mr. 
Maxim  says,  "American  machinists  have  become  and  are  the  finest  mechanics  in  the  world." 
Indicating  as  it  does,  in  every  line,  the  familiarity  of  the  author  with  every  detail  of  daily 
experience  in  the  shop,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  service  to  any  man  practically  -connected  with 
the  shaping  or  finishing  of  metals. 

There  is  nothing  experimental  or  visionary  about  the  book,  all  devices  being  in  actual  use 
and  giving  good  results.  It  might  be  called  a  compendium  of  shop  methods,  showing  a  vari- 
ety of  special  tools  and  appliances  which  will  give  new  ideas  to  many  mechanics,  from  the 
superintendent  down  to  the  man  at  the  bench.  It  will  be  found  a  valuable  addition  to  any 
machinist's  library,  and  should  be  consulted  whenever  a  new  or  difficult  job  is  to  be  done, 
whether  it  is  boring ,  milling,  turning,  or  planing,  as  they  are  all  treated  in  a  practical  manner. 
Fifth  Edition.     320  pages.     250  illustrations.     Price      ...  $2.50 


MODERN  MILLING  MACHINES:  THEIR  DESIGN,  CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERA- 
TION.    By  Joseph  G.  Horner. 

This  book  describes  and  illustrates  the  Milling  Machine  and  its  work  in  such  a  plain,  clear, 
and  forceful  manner,  and  illustrates  the  subject  so  clearly  and  completely,  that  the  up-to-date 
machinist,  student,  or  mechanical  engineer  cannot  afford  to  do  without  the  valuable  infor- 
mation which  it  contains.  It  describes  not  only  the  early  machines  of  this  class,  but  notes 
their  gradual  development  into  the  splendid  machines  of  the  present  day,  giving  the  design 
and  construction  of  the  various  types,  forms,  and  special  features  produced  bj'  prominent 
manufacturers,  American  and  foreign. 

Milling  cutters  in  all  their  development  and  modernized  forms  are  illustrated  and  described, 
and  the  operations  they  are  capable  of  producing  upon  different  classes  of  work  are  carefully 
described  in  detail,  and  the  speeds  and  feeds  necessary  are  discussed,  and  valuable  and  useful 
data  given  for  de^rmining  these  usually  perplexing  problems.  The  book  is  the  most  compre- 
hensive work  published  on  the  subject.     304  pages.      300  illustrations.     Price       .     .     $4.00 

"  SHOP   KINKS."     By  Robert  Grimshaw. 

A  book  of  400  pages  and  222  illustrations,  being  entirely  different  fron^  any  other  book  on 
machine  shop  practice.  Departing  from  conventional  style,  the  author  avoids  universal  or 
common  shop  usage  and  limits  his  work  to  showing  special  ways  of  doing  things  better,  more 
cheaply  and  more  rapidly  than  iisual.  As  a  result  the  advanced  methods  of  representative 
establishments  of  the  world  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  reader.  This  book  shows  the 
proprietor  where  large  savings  are  possible,  and  how  products  may  be  improved.  To  the 
employee  it  holds  out  suggestions  that,  properly  applied,  will  hasten  his  advancement.  No 
shoD  can  afford  to  be  without  it.  It  bristles  with  valuable  wrinkles  and  helpful  suggestions. 
It  will  benefit  all,  from  apprentice  to  proprietor.  Every  machinist,  at  any  age,  should  study 
?ts  pages.     Fifth  Edition.     Price » $2.50 

21 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

THREADS  AND  THREAD  CUTTING.     By  Colvin  and  Stabel. 
This  clears  up   many  of  the  mysteries  of  thread-cutting,  such  as  double  and  triple  threads, 
internal  threads,  catching  threads,  use  of  hobs,  etc.     Contains  a  lot  of  useful  hints  and  several 
tables.     3rd  Edition.     Price 25  cents 

TOOLS  FOR  MACHINISTS  AND  WOOD  WORKERS,  INCLUDING  INSTRUMENTS 
OF   MEASUREMENT.     By  Joseph  G.  Horner. 

The  principles  upon  which  cutting  tools  for  wood,  metal,  and  other  substances  are  made  are 
identical,  whether  used  by  the  machinist,  the  carpenter,  or  by  any  other  skilled  mechanic  in 
their  daily  work,  and  the  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  a  correct  and  practical  description  of 
these  tools  as  they  are  commonly  designed,  constructed,  and  used.  340  pages,  fully  illustrated. 
Price $3.50 

MANUAL   TRAINING 


ECONOMICS    OF   MANUAL   TRAINING.     By  Louis  Rouillion. 

The  only  book  published  that  gives  just  the  information  needed  by  all  interested  in  Manual 
Training,  regarding  Buildings,  Equipment,  and  Supplies.  Shows  exactly  what  is  needed  for 
all  grades  of  the  work  from  the  Kindergarten  to  the  High  and  Normal  School.  Gives  item- 
ized lists  of  everything  used  in  Manual  Training  Work  and  tells  just  what  it  ought  to  cost. 
Also  shows  where  to  buy  supplies,  etc.  Contains  174  pages,  and  is  fully  illustrated. 
2nd  Edition.      Price $1.50 

MARINE   ENGINEERING 


MARINE  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS,  THEIR  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION.     By 

Dr.  G.  Bauer,  Leslie  S.  Robertson,  and  S.  Bryan  Donkin. 

In  the  words  of  Dr.  Bauer,  the  present  work  owes  its  origin  to  an  oft  felt  want  of  a  Condensed 
Treatise,  embodying  the  Theoretical  and  Practical  Rules  used  in  Designing  Marine  Engines 
and  Boilers.  The  need  for  such  a  work  has  been  felt  by  most  engineers  engaged  in  the  con- 
struction and  working  of  Marine  Engines,  not  only  by  the  younger  men,  but  also  by  those  of 
greater  experience.  The  fact  that  the  original  German  work  was  written  by  the  chief  engineer 
of  the  famous  Vulcan  Works,  Stettin,  is  in  itself  a  guarantee  that  this  book  is  in  all  respects 
thoroughly  up-to-date,  and  that  it  embodies  all  the  information  which  is  necessary  for  the 
design  and  construction  of  the  highest  types  of  marine  engines  and  boilers.  It  may  be  said, 
that  the  motive  power  which  Dr.  Bauer  has  placed  in  the  fast  German  liners  that  have  been 
turned  out  of  late  years  from  the  Stettin  Works,  represent  the  very  best  practice  in  marine 
engineering  of  the  present  day. 

-This  work  is  clearly  written,  thoroughly  systematic,  theoretically  sound;  while  the  character 
of  its  plans,  drawings,  tables,  and  statistics  is  without  reproach.  The  illustrations  are  care- 
ful reproductions  from  actual  working  drawings,  with  some  well-executed  photographic  views 
of  completed  engines  and  boilers.      744  pages.     550  illustrations  and  numerous  tables. 

$9.00  net 
MODERN  SUBMARINE  CHART. 

A  cross-section  view,  showing  clearly  and  distinctly  all  the  interior  of  a  Submarine  of  the 
latest  type.  You  get  more  information  from  this  chart,  about  the  construction  and  operation 
of  a  Submarine,  than  in  any  other  way.  No  Details  omitted — everything  is  accurate  and  to 
scale.  It  is  absolutely  correct  in  every  detail,  having  been  approved  by  Naval  Engineers. 
AU  the  machinery  and  devices  fitted  in  a  modern  Submarine  Boat  are  shown  and  to  make  the 
engraving  more  readily  understood  all  the  features  are  shown  in  operative  form  with  Ofiflcers 
and  Men  in  the  act  of  performing  the  duties  assigned  to  them  in  service  conditions.  This 
CHART  IS  REALLY  AN  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  A  SUBMARINE.  It  is  educational 
and  worth  many  times  its  cost.     Mailed  in  a  Tube  for 25  cents 

MINING 

ORE  DEPOSITS,  WITH  A  CHAPTER  ON  HINTS  TO    PROSPECTORS.     By  J.  P. 

Johnson 

This  book  gives  a  condensed  account  of  the  ore-deposits  at  present  known  in  South  Africa. 
It  is  also  intended  as  a  guide  to  the  prospector.  Only  an  elementary  knowledge  of  geology 
and  some  mining  experience  are  necessary  in  order  to  understand  this  work.  With  these 
qualifications,  it  wiU  materially  assist  one  in  his  search  for  metalliferous  niineral  occurrences 

22 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

and,  so  far  as  simple- ores  are  concerned,  should  enable  one  to  form  some  idea  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  any  he  may  find. 

Among  the  chapters  given  are:  Titaniferous  and  Chromiferous  Iron  Oxides — Nickel — Cop- 
per— Cobalt — Tin — Molybdenum — Tungsten — Lead — Mercury — Antimony — Iron — Hints  to 
Prospectors.  $2.00 

PHYSICS   AND   CHEMISTRY   OF  MINING.     By  T.  H.  Byrom. 

A  practical  work  for  the  use  of  all  preparing  for  examinations  in  mining  or  qualifying  for 
colliery  managers'  certificates.  The  aim  of  the  author  in  this  excellent  book  is  to  place  clearly 
before  the  reader  useful  and  authoritative  data  which  will  render  him  valuable  assistance  in 
his  studies.  The  only  work  of  its  kind  published.  The  information  incorporated  in  it  will 
prove  of  the  greatest  practical  utility  to  students,  mining  engineers,  colliery  managers,  and 
all  others  who  are  specially  interested  in  the  present-day  treatment  of  mining  problems. 
Among  its  contents  are  chapters  on:  The  Atmosphere;  Laws  Relating  to  the  Behavior  of 
Gases;  The  Diffusion  of  Gases;  Composition  of  the  Atmosphere:  Sundry  Constituents  of  the 
Atmosphere;  Water;  Carbon;  Fire-Damp;  Combustion;  Coal  Dust  and  Its  Action;  Ex- 
plosives; Composition  of  Various  Coals  and  Fuels;  Methods  of  Analysis  of  Coal;  Strata  Ad- 
joining the  Coal  Measures;  Magnetism  and  Electricity;  Appendix;  Useful  Tables,  etc  ; 
Miscellaneous  Questions.     160  pages.     Illustrated $2.00 

PRACTICAL   COAL   MINING.     By  T.  H.  Cockin. 

An  important  work,  containing  428  pages  and  213  illustrations,  complete  with  practical  de- 
tails, which  will  Intuitively  impart  to  the  reader,  not  only  a  general  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples of  coal  mining,  but  also  considerable  insight  into  allied  subjects.  This  treatise  is  posi- 
tively up  to  date  in  every  instance,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  colliery  engineer, 
geologist,  mine  operator,  superintendent,  foreman,  and  all  others  who  are  interested  in  or 
connected  with    the  industry.     2nd  Edition $2.50 

PATTERN  MAKING 

PRACTICAL  PATTERN  MAKING.     By  F.  W.  Barrows. 

This  is  a  very  complete  and  entirely  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of  pattern  making,  illus- 
trating pattern  work  in  wood  and  metal.  From  its  pages  you  are  taught  just  what  you  should 
know  about  pattern  making.  It  contains  a  detailed  description  of  the  materials  used  by 
pattern  makers,  also  the  tools,  both  those  for  hand  use,  and  the  more  interesting  machine 
tools;  having  complete  chapters  on  the  band  saw,  The  Buzz  Saw,  and  the  Lathe.  Individual 
patterns  of  manj^  different  kinds  are  fully  illustrated  and  described,  and  the  mounting  of 
metal  patterns  on  plates  for  molding  machines  is  included. 

Rules,  Formulas  and  Tables  are  included,  containing  simple  and  original  methods  for  finding 
the  weight  of  castings,  both  from  the  pattern  itself  and  from  the  drawings.  This  section 
contains  some  new  and  practical  formulas,  which  will  be  found  very  useful  in  estimating 
weights,  with  the  accuracy  required  for  quotations  to  prospective  customers.  All  of  these 
rules  are  simple,  and  can  be  put  to  practical  use  by  the  ordinary,  every-day  man,  and  they 
have  been  proved  by  years  of  actual  use. 

Plain  rules  for  keeping  down  the  cost  of  patterns,  with  a  complete  system  for  checking  the 
cost  of  and  marking  the  patterns,  and  a  card  record  showing  what  the  pattern  is,  material 
used,  where>  located  in  safe,  with  its  cost  and  date  of  production,  is  included.  The  book  closes 
with  an  original  and  practical  method  for  the  inventory  and  valuation  of  patterns.  Con- 
taining 326  pages  and  150  detailed  illustrations.    Price $2.00 

PERFUMERY 

HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RECEIPTS,  FORMULAS  AND  PRO- 
CESSES.    Edited  by  G.  D.  Hiscox. 

The  most  valuable  Techno-chemical  Receipt  Book  published.  Contains  over  10,000  practical 
receipts,  many  of  which  will  prove  of  special  value  to  the  perfumer,  a  mine  of  information,  up- 
to-date  in  every  respect.     Price,  Cloth,  $3.00;  half  morocco $4.00 

PERFUMES  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION.  By  G.  W.  Askinson,  Perfumer. 
A  comprehensive  treatise,  in  which  there  has  been  nothing  omitted  that  could  be  of  value 
to  the  Perfumer.  Complete  directions  for  making  handkerchief  perfumes,  smelling-salts, 
sachets,  fumigating  pastilles:  preparations  for  the  care  of  the  skin,  the  mouth,  the  hair,  cos- 
metics, hair  dyes  and  other  toilet  articles  are  given,  also  a  detailed  description  of  aromatic 
substances:  their  nature,  tests  of  purity,  and  wholesale  manufacture.  A  book  of  general, 
as  well  as  professional  interest,  meeting  the  wants  not  only  of  the  druggist  and  perfume  man- 
ufacturer, but  also  of  the  general  public.     Third  edition.     312  pages.     Illustrated.     .    $3.00 

2-? 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 
PLUMBING 

MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  PLUMBERS.  By  R.  M.  Starbuck. 
A  concise,  comprehensive  and  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of  mechanical  drawing  in  its 
various  modern  applications  to  the  work  of  all  who  are  in  any  way  connected  with  the 
plumbing  trade.  Nothing  will  so  help  the  plumber  in  estimating  and  in  explaining  work  to 
customers  and  workmen  as  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  and  to  the  workman  it  is  of  inestimable 
value  if  he  is  to  rise  above  his  position  to  positions  of  greater  responsibiUty.  Among  the 
chapters  contained  are:  1.  Value  to  plumber  of  knowledge  of  drawing;  tools  required 
and  their  use;  common  views  needed  in  mechanical  drawing.  2.  Perspective  versus  mechan- 
ical drawing  in  showing  plumbing  construction.  3.  Correct  and  incorrect  methods  in 
plumbing  drawing;  plan  and  elevcction  explained.  3.  Floor  and  cellar  plans  and  elevation; 
scale  drawings;  use  of  triangles.  5.  Use  of  triangles;  drawing  of  fittings,  traps,  etc.  6. 
Drawing  plumbing  elevations  and  fittings.  7.  Instructions  in  drawing  plumbing  elevations. 
8.  The  drawing  of  plumbing  fixtures;  scale  drawings.  9.  Drawing  of  fixtures  and  fittings. 
10.  Inking  of  drawings.  11.  Shading  of  drawings.  12.  Shading  of  drawings.  13.  Sec- 
tional drawings;  drawing  of  threads.  14.  Plumbing  elevations  from  architect's  plan. 
15.  Elevations  of  separate  parts  of  the  plumbing  system.  16.  Elevations  from  architect's 
plans.  17.  Drawing  of  detail  plumbing  connections,  18.  Architect's  plans  and  plumbint? 
elevations  of  residence.  19.  Plumbing  elevations  of  residence  (continued);  plumbing  plans 
for  cottage.  20.  Plimibing  elevations;  roof  connections.  21.  Plans  and  plumbing  eleva- 
tions for  six-flat  building.  22.  Drawing  of  various  parts  of  the  plumbing  system;  use  of 
scales.  23.  Use  of  architect's  scales.  24.  Special  features  in  the  illustrations  of  country 
plumbing.  25.  Drawing  of  wrought  iron  piping,  valves,  radiators,  coils,  etc.  26.  Drawing 
of  piping  to  illustrate  heating  systems.    150  iUustrations.    Price $1.50 

MODERN  PLUMBING  ILLUSTRATED.     By  R.  M,  Starbuck, 

This  book  represents  the  highest  standard  of  plumbing  work.  It  has  been  adopted  and  used 
as  a  reference  book  by  the  United  States  Government,  in  its  sanitary  work  in  Cuba,  Porto 
Hico,  and  the  Philippines,  and  by  the  principal  Boards  of  Health  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

It  gives  connections,  sizes  and  working  data  for  all  fixtures  and  groups  of  fixtures.  It  is 
helpful  to  the  master  plumber  in  demonstrating  to  his  customers  and  in  figm-ing  work.  It 
gives  the  mechanic  and  student  quick  and  easj-  access  to  the  best  modern  plumbing  practice. 
Suggestions  for  estimating  phimbing  construction  are  contained  in  its  pages.  This  book 
represents,  in  a  word,  the  latest  and  best  up-to-date  practice,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
every  architect,  sanitary  engineer  and  plumber  who  wishes  to  keep  himself  up  to  the  minute 
on  this  important  feature  of  construction.  Contains  following  chapters,  each  illustrated 
with  a  full-page  plate:  Kitchen  sink,  laimdry  tubs,  vegetable  wash  sink;  lavatories, 
pantry  sinks,  contents  of  marble  slabs;  bath  tub,  foot  and  sitz  bath,  shower  bath;  water 
closets,  venting  of  water  closets ;  low-down  water  closets,  water  closets  operated  by  flush 
valves,  water  closet  range;  slop  sink,  urinals,  the  bidet;  hotel  and  restaurant  sink,  grease 
trap;  refrigerators,  safe  wastes,  laimdry  waste;  lines  of  refrigerators,  bar  sinks,  soda  foun- 
tain sinks;  horse  stall,  frost-proof  water  closets;  connections  for  S  traps,  venting;  con- 
nections for  drum  traps;  soil  pipe  connections;  supporting  of  soil  pipe;  main  trap  and 
fresh  air  inlet;  floor  drains  and  cellar  drains,  subsoil  drainage;  water  closets  and  floor 
connections;  local  venting:  connections  for  bath  rooms;  connections  for  bath  rooms,  con- 
tinued; connections  for  bath  rooms,  continued;  connections  for  bath  rooms,  continued; 
examples  of  poor  practice;  roughing- work  ready  for  test;  testing  of  plumbing  system; 
method  of  continvious  venting ;  continuous  venting  for  two-floor  work ;  continuous  venting 
for  two  lines  of  fixtures  on  three  or  more  floors ;  continuous  venting  of  water  closets ;  plumb- 
ing for  cottage  house;  construction  for  ceUar  piping:  plumbing  for  residence,  use  of  special 
fittings;  plumbing  for  two-flat  house;  plumbing  for  apartment  building;  plumbing  for 
double  apartment  building;  plumbing  for  oflSce  building;  plumbing  for  public  toUet  rooms; 
plumbing  for  pubhc  toilet  rooms,  continued;  plumbing  for  bath  establishment;  plmnbing 
for  engine  house,  factory  plimibing ;  automatic  flushing  for  schools,  factories,  etc. ;  use  of 
flushing  valves;  urinals  for  pubhc  toilet  rooms;  the  Durham  system,  the  destruction  of 
pipes  by  electrolysis;  construction  of  work  without  use  of  lead;  Automatic  sewage  Uft, 
automatic  sump  tank ;  country  plumbing ;  construction  of  cesspools :  septic  tank  and  auto- 
matic sewage  siphon:  country  plumbing;  water  supply  for  country  house;  thawing  of 
water  mains  and  ser\ice  by  electricity;  double  boilers:  hot  water  supply  of  large  build- 
ings; automatic  control  of  hot  water  tank;  suggestions  for  estimating  plumbing  construc- 
tion.    400  octavo  pages,   fully  illustrated  by  55  full-page  engravings.     Price     .     $4.00 

STANDARD  PRACTICAL  PLUMBING.     By  R.  M.  Starbuck. 

A  complete  practical  treatise  of  450  pages  covering  the  subject  of  Modern  Plumbing 
in  all  its  branches,  a  large  amount  of  space  being  devoted  to  a  very  complete  and  practical 
treatment  of  the  subject  of  Hot  Water  Supply  and  Circulation  and  Range  Boiler  Work. 
Its  thirty  chapters  include  about  every  phase  of  the  subject  one  can  think  of,  making  it 

24. 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

an  indispensable  work  to  the  master  plumber,  the  journeyman  plumber,  and  the  apprentice 
plumber,  containing  chapters  on:  the  plumber's  tools;  wiping  solder,  composition  and  use; 
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hot  water  for  large  buildings;  water  lift  and  its  use;  multiple  connections  for  hot  water 
boilers;  heating  of  radiation  by  supply  system;  theory  for  the  plumber;  drawing  for  the 
plumber.     Fully  illustrated  by  347  engravings.     Price $3.00 

RECEIPT   BOOK 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RECEIPTS,  FORMULAS  AND  PRO- 
CESSES.    Edited  by  Gardner  D.  Hiscox. 

The  most  valuable  Techno-chemical  Receipt  Book  published,  including  over  10,000  selected 
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This  is  the  most  complete  Book  of  Receipts  ever  published,  giving  thousands  of  receipts  for 
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and  to  retain  those  processes  wliich  long  experience  has  proven  worthy  of  a  permanent  record 
To  present  here  even  a  limited  number  of  the  subjects  which  find  a  place  in  this  valuable 
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terest and  immeasurable  practical  value  to  the  scientific  amateur  and  to  him  who  wishes  to 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  many  processes  used  in  the  arts,  trades  and  manufactures,  a 
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the  information  necessary  to  conduct  a  process,  the  work  will  be  found  of  inestimable  worth 
to  the  Metallurgist,  the  Photographer,  the  Perfumer,  the  Painter,  the  Manufacturer  of 
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the  Druggist,  the  Electrician,  the  Brewer,  the  Engineer,  the  Foundryman,  the  jMachinist, 
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Paper  Maker,  the  Wood  and  Metal  Worker,  the  Chandler  and  Soap  ]Maker,  the  Veterinary 
Surgeon,  and  the  Technologist  in  general. 

A  mine  of  information,  and  up-to-date  in  every  respect.  A  book  which  will  prove  of  value 
to  EVERYONE,  as  it  covers  every  branch  of  the  Useful  Arts.     800  pages.     Price   $3.00 

WHAT    IS    SAID    OF    THIS    BOOK: 


"Your  Twentieth  Century  Book  of  Receipts,  Formulas  and  Processes  duly  received.  I  am 
glad  to  have  a  copy  of  it,  and  if  I  could  not  replace  it  money  couldn't  buy  it.  It  is  the  best 
thing  of  the  sort  I  ever  saw."  (Signed)  M.  E.  Trux, 

Sparta,  Wis. 
"  There  are  few  persons  who  would  not  be  able  to  find  in  the  book  some  single  formula  that 
would  repay  several  times  the  cost  of  the  book.  " — Merchant's  Record  and  Show  Window. 

RUBBER 


RUBBER  HAND  STAMPS  AND  THE  MANIPULATION  OF  INDIA  RUBBER.     By 

T.  O'CoNOR  Sloane. 

This  book  gives  full  details  on  all  points,  treating  in  a  concise  and  siini)l(>  manner  the  elements 
of  nearly  everything  it  is  necessary  to  understand  for  a  coniniencenicnt  in  anv  branch  of  the 
India  Rubber  Manufacture.  The  making  of  all  kinds  of  Rubber  Hand  Stamps,  Small  Articles 
of  India  Rubber,  J.  S.  Government  Composition,  Dating  Hand  Stamps,  tlie  Manipulation 
of  Sheet  Rubber,    Toy  Balloons.  India  Rubber  Solutions,  Cements,  Blackings,  Renovating 

25 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

Varnish,  and  Treatment  for  India  Rubber  Shoes,  etc.;  the  Hektograph  Stamp  Inks,  and 
Miscellaneous  Notes,  with  a  Short  Account  of  the  Discovery,  Collection,  and  Manufacture  of 
India  Rubber  are  set  forth  in  a  manner  designed  to  be  readily  understood,  the  explanations 
being  plain  and  simple.  Including  a  chapter  on  Rubber  Tire  Making  and  Vulcanizing ;  also  a 
chapter  on  the  uses  of  rubber  in  Surgery  and  Dentistry.  Third  revised  and  enlarged  edition. 
175  pages.  Illustrated $1.00 

SAWS 


SAW  FILINGS  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SAWS.     By  Robert  Grimshaw. 

A  practical  hand  book  on  filing,  gumming,  swaging,  hammering,  and  the  brazing  of  band  saws, 
the  speed,  work,  and  power  to  run  circular  saws,  etc.  A  handy  book  for  those  who  have  charge 
of  saws,  or  for  those  mechanics  who  do  their  own  filing,  as  it  deals  with  the  proper  shape  and 
pitches  of  saw  teeth  of  all  kinds  and  gives  many  useful  hints  and  rules  for  gumming,  setting, 
and  filing,  and  is  a  practical  aid  to  those  who  use  saws  for  any  purpose.  New  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.      Illustrated.      Price $1.00 

STEAM   ENGINEERING 

AMERICAN   STATIONARY   ENGINEERING.     By  W.  E.  Crane. 

This  book  begins  at  the  boiler  room  and  takes  in  the  whole  power  plant.  A  plain  talk  on 
every-day  work  about  engines,  boilers,  and  their  accessories.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  scien- 
tific or  mathematical.  All  formulas  are  in  simple  form  so  that  any  one  understanding  plain 
arithmetic  can  readily  understand  any  of  them.  The  author  has  made  this  the  most  prac- 
tical book  in  print;  has  given  the  results  of  his  years  of  experience,  and  has  included  about 
aU  that  has  to  do  with  an  engine  room  or  a  power  plant.  You  are  not  left  to  guess  at  a  single 
ooint.  You  are  shown  clearly  what  to  expect  under  the  various  conditions ;  how  to  secure 
the  best  results;  ways  of  preventing  "shut  do^Tis"  and  repairs:  in  short,  all  that  goes  to 
make  up  the  requirements  of  a  good  engineer,  capable  of  taking  charge  of  a  plant.  It's  plain 
enough  for  practical  men  and  yet  of  value  to  those  high  in  the  profession. 
A.  partial  list  of  contents  is:  The  boiler  room,  cleaning  boilers,  firing,  feeding:  pumps; 
jispection  and  repair;  chimneys,  sizes  and  cost;  piping:  mason  Avork:  foimdations;  testing 
cement;  pile  driving;  engines,  slow  and  high  speed;  valves:  valve  setting:  Corliss  engines, 
setting  valves,  single  and  double  eccentric:  air  pumps  and  condensers:  different  types  of 
condensers:  water  needed:  lining  up;  poixnds:  pins  not  square  in  crosshead  or  crank; 
engineers' tools:  pistons  and  piston  rings;  bearing  metal:  hardened  copper ;  drip  pipes  from 
cylinder  jackets;  belts,  how  made,  care  of;  oils;  greases:  testing  lubricants:  rules  and 
tables,  including  steam  tables;  areas  of  segments;  squares  and  square  root:  cubes  and  cube 
root;  areas  and  circumferences  of  circles.  Notes  on:  Brick  work;  explosions;  pumps; 
pump  valves:  heaters,  economizers;  safety  valves ;  lap,  lead,  and  clearance.  Has  a  complete 
examination  for  a  license,  etc.,  etc.    Second  edition.    285  pages.    Illustrated.  Price    .  $2.00 

EMINENT   ENGINEERS.     By  Dwight  Goddard. 

Everyone  who  appreciates  the  effect  of  such  great  inventions  as  the  Steam  Engine,  Steamboat, 
Locomotive,  Sewing  Machine,  Steel  Working,  and  other  fundamental  discoveries,  is  interested 
in  knowing  a  little  about  the  men  who  made  them  and  their  achievements. 
Mr.  Goddard  has  selected  thirty-two  of  the  world's  engineers  who  have  contributed  most 
largely  to  the  advancement  of  our  civilization  by  mechanical  means,  giving  only  such  facts  as 
are  of  general  interest  and  in  a  way  which  appeals  to  all,  whether  mechanics  or  not.  280 
pages.     35  illustrations.     Price $1.50 

ENGINE   RUNNER'S   CATECHISM.     By  Robert  Grimshaw. 

A  practical  treatise  for  the  stationary  engineer,  telling  how  to  erect,  adjust  and  run  the  prin- 
cipal steam  engines  in  use  in  the  United  States.  Describing  the  principal  features  of  various 
special  and  well-known  makes  of  engines:  Temper  Cut-off.  Shipping  and  Receiving  Founda- 
tions, Erecting  and  Starting,  Valve  Setting,  Care  and  Use,  Emergencies,  Erecting  and  Ad- 
justing Special  Engines. 

The  questions  asked  throughout  the  catechism  are  plain  and  to  the  point,'"and  the  answers 
are  given  in  such  simple  language  as  to  be  readily  understood  by  anyone.  All  the  instructions 
given  are  complete  and  up-to-date;  and  they  are  written  in  a  popular  style,  without  any 
technicalities  or  mathematical  formulae.  The  work  is  of  a  handy  size  for  the  pocket,  clearly 
and  well  printed,  nicely  bound,  and  profusely  illustrated.     To  young  engineers  this  catechism 

26 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

will  be  of  great  value ^  especially  to  those  who  may  be  preparing  to  go  forward  to  be  examined 
for  certificates  of  competency;  and  to  engineers  generally  it  will  be  of  no  little  service,  as  they 
will  find  in  this  volume  more  really  practical  and  useful  information  than  is  to  be  found  any- 
where else  within  a  like  compass.     387  pages.     Seventh  edition.     Price        ....     $2.00 

ENGINE   TESTS   AND   BOILER   EFFICIENCIES.     By  J.  Buchetti. 

This  work  fully  describes  and  illustrates  the  method  of  testing  the  power  of  steam  engines, 
turbines  and  explosive  motors.  The  properties  of  steam  and  the  evaporative  power  of  fuels. 
Combustion  of  fuel  and  chimney  draft;  with  formulas  explained  or  practically  computed 
255  pages,  179  illustrations $3.00 

HORSEPOWER  CHART. 

Shows  the  horsepower  of  any  stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter  what  the 
cylinder  diameter  of  stroke;  the  steam  pressure  or  cut  off;  the  revolutions,  or  whether  con- 
densing or  non-condensing,  it's  all  there.  Easy  to  use,  accurate,  and  saves  time  and  calcu- 
lations.    Especially  useful  to  engineers  and  designers 50  cents 

MODERN  STEAM  ENGINEERING  IN  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE.  By  Gardner 
D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  a  complete  and  practical  work  issued  for  Stationary  Engineers  and  firemen  dealing 
with  the  care  and  management  of  boilers,  engines,  pumps,  superheated  steam,  refrigerating 
machinery,  dynamos,  motors,  elevators,  air  compressors,  and  all  other  branches  with  which 
the  modern  engineer  must  be  familiar.  Nearly  200  questions  with  their  answers  on  steam 
and  electrical  engineering,  likely  to  be  asked  by  the  Examining  Board,  are  included. 
Among  the  chapters  are:  Historical;  steam  and  its  properties;  appliances  for  the  genera- 
tion of  steam;  types  of  boilers;  chimney  and  its  work;  heat  economy  of  the  feed  water; 
steam  piunps  and  their  work;  incrustation  and  its  work;  steam  above  atmospheric  pressure; 
flow  of  steam  from  nozzles;  superheated  steam  and  its  work;  adiabatic  expansion  of  steam; 
indicator  and  its  work;  steam  engine  proportions;  slide  valve  engines  and  valve  motion; 
Corliss  engine  and  its  valve  gear;  compound  engine  and  its  theory;  triple  and  multiple 
expansion  engine,  steam  turbine;  refrigeration;  elevators  and  their  management;  cost 
of  power;  steam  engine  troubles;  electric  power  and  electric  plants.  487  pages.  405  en- 
gravings.    Price $3.00 

STEAM   ENGINE   CATECHISM.     By  Robert  Grimshaw. 

This  unique  volume  of  413  pages  is  not  only  a  catechism  on  the  question  and  answer  princi- 
ple; but  it  contains  formulas  and  worked-out  answers  for  all  thje  Steam  problems  that  apper- 
tain to  the  operation  and  management  of  the  Steam  Engine.  Illustrations  of  various  valves 
and  valve  gear  with  their  principles  of  operation  are  given.  Thirty-four  Tables  that  are 
indispensable  to  every  engineer  and  fireman  that  wishes  to  be  progressive  and  is  ambitious  to 
become  master  of  his  calling  are  within  its  pages.  It  is  a  most  valuable  instructor  in  the 
service  of  Steam  Engineering.  Leading  engineers  have  recommended  it  as  a  valuable  educa- 
tor for  the  beginner  as  well  as  a  reference  book  for  the  engineer.  It  is  thoroughly  indexed 
for  every  detail.  Every  essential  question  on  the  Steam  Engine  with  its  answer  is  contained 
in  this  valuable  work.     Sixteenth  edition.     Price $2.00 

STEAM  ENGINEER'S  ARITHMETIC.     By  Colvin-Cheney. 

A  practical  pocket  book  for  the  steam  engineer.  Shows  how  to  work  the  problems  of  the 
engine  room  and  shows  "why."  Tells  how  to  figure  horse-power  of  engines  and  boilers;  area 
of  boilers ;  has  tables  of  areas  and  circumferences ;  steam  tables ;  has  a  dictionarv  of  engineering 
terms.  Puts  you  on  to  all  all  of  the  little  kinks  in  figuring  whatever  there  is  to  figure  around 
a  power  plant.  Tells  you  about  the  heat  unit;  absolute  zero;  adiabatic  expansion;  duty  of 
engines;  factor  of  safety;  and  1,001  other  things;  and  everything  is  plain  and  simple — not 
the  hardest  way  to  figure,  but  the  easiest.     2nd  Edition 50  cents 

STEAM   HEATING   AND    VENTILATION 


PRACTICAL  STEAM,  HOT- WATER  HEATING   AND  VENTILATION.      By  A.  G. 

King. 

This  book  is  the  standard  and  latest  work  published  on  the  subject  and  has  been  prepared  for 
the  use  of  all  engaged  in  the  business  of  steam,  hot  water  heating,  and  ventilation.  It  is  an 
original  and  exhaustive  work.  Tells  how  to  get  heating  contracts,  how  to  install  heating  and 
ventilating  apparatus,  the  best  business  methods  to  be  used,  with  "Tricks  of  the  Trade"  for 

27 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


shoo  use.  Rules  and  data  for  estimating  radiation  and  cost  and  such  tables  and  information 
as  make  it  an  indispensable  work  for  everyone  interested  in  steam,  hot  water  heating,  and  venti- 
lation. It  describes  all  the  principal  systems  of  steam,  hot  water,  vacuum,  vapor,  and  vacuum- 
vapor  heating,  together  with  the  new  accelerated  systems  of  hot  water  circulation,  including 
chapters  on  up-to-date  methods  of  ventilation  and  the  fan  or  blower  system  of  heating  and 
ventilation.  Containing  chapters  on:  I.  Introduction.  II.  Heat.  III.  Evolution  of 
artificial  heating  apparatus.  IV.  Boiler  surface  and  settings.  V.  The  chimney  flue.  VI. 
Pipe  and  fittings.  VII.  Valves,  various  kinds.  VIII.  Forms  of  radiating  surfaces.  IX. 
Locating  of  radiating  surfaces.  X.  Estimating  radiation.  XI.  Steam-heating  apparatus. 
XII.  Exhaust-steam  heating.  XIII.  Hot-water  heating.  XIV.  Pressure  systems  of  hot- 
water  work.  XV.  Hot-water  appliances.  XVI.  Greenhouse  heating.  XVII.  Vacuum 
vapor  and  vacuum  exhaust  heating.     XVIII.  jMiscellaneous  heating.     XIX.  Radiator  and 


pipe  connections.  XX.  Ventilation.  XXI.  IMechanical  ventilation  and  hot-blast  heating. 
XXII.  Steam  appliances.  XXIII.  District  heating.  XXIV.  Pipe  and  boiler  covering. 
XXV.  Temperature  regulation  and  heat  control.      XXVI.  Business  methods.     XXVII. 


JMiscellaneous.     XXVIII.  Rules,  tables  and  useful  information.     367  pages.     300  detailed 
engravings.     Price $3.00 

STEAM  PIPES 


STEAM   PIPES:  THEIR   DESIGN    AND    CONSTRUCTION.     By   Wm.  H.  Booth. 

The  work  is  well  illustrated  in  regard  to  pipe  joints,  expansion  offsets,  flexible  joints,  and 
self-contained  sliding  joints  for  taking  up  the  expansion  of  long  pipes.  In  fact,  the  chapters 
on  the  flow  of  steam  and  expansion  of  pipes  are  most  valuable  to  all  steam  fitters  and  users. 
The  pressure  strength  of  pipes  and  method  of  hanging  them  are  well  treated  and  illustrated. 
Valves  and  by-passes  are  fully  illustrated  and  described,  as  are  also  flange  joints  and  their 
proper  proportions,  exhaust  heads  and  separators.  One  of  the  most  valuable  chapters  is  that 
on  superheated  steam  and  the  saving  of  steam  by  insulation  with  the  various  kinds  of  felt- 
ing and  other  materials  with  comparison  tables  of  the  loss  of  heat  in  thermal  units  from  naked 
and  felted  steam  pipes.     Contains  187  pages.     Price $S.OO 

STEEL 

AMERICAN  STEEL  WORKER.     By  E.  R.  Markham. 

This  book  tells  how  to  select,  and  how  to  work,  temper,  harden,  and  anneal  steel  for  everything 
on  earth.  It  doesn't  tell  how  to  temper  one  class  of  tools  and  then  leave  the  treatment  of 
another  kind  of  tool  to  your  imagination  and  judgment,  but  it  gives  careful  instructions  for 
every  detafl  of  every  tool,  whether  it  be  a  tap,  a  reamer  or  just  a  screw-driver.  It  tells  about 
the  tempering  of  srnall  watch  springs,  the  hardening  of  cutlery,  and  the  annealing  of  dies.  In 
fact  there  isn't  a  thing  that  a  steel  worker  would  want  to  know  that  isn't  included.  It  is  the 
standard  book  on  selecting,  hardening,  and  tempering  all  grades  of  steel.  Among  the 
chapter  headings  might  be  mentioned  the  following  subjects:  Introduction;  the  workman; 
steel;  methods  of  heating;  heating  tool  steel;  forging;  anrealing;  hardening  baths;  baths 
for  hardening;  hardening  steel;  drawing  the  temper  after  hardening;  examples  of  hard- 
ening; pack  hardening;  case  hardening;  spring  tempering;  making  tools  of  machine  steel; 
special  steels;  steel  for  various  tools;  causes  of  trouble;  high  speed  steels,  etc.  366  pages. 
Very  fully  iUustrated.     3rd  Edition.    Price $2.50 

HARDENING,  TEMPERING,  ANNEALING,  AND  FORGING  OF  STEEL.       By  J.  V. 

WOODWORTH. 

A  new  work  treating  in  a  clear,  concise  manner  all  modern  processes  for  the  heating,  annealing 
forging,  welding,  hardening,  and  tempering  of  steel,  making  it  a  book  of  great  practical  value 
to  the  metal-working  mechanic  in  general,  with  special  directions  for  the  successful  hardening 
and  tempering  of  all  steel  tools  used  in  the  arts,  including  milling  cutters,  taps,  thread  dies, 
reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow  mills,  pimches  and  dies,  and  all  kinds  of  sheet  metal 
working  tools,  shear  blades,  saws,  fine  cutlery,  and  metal  cutting  tools  of  all  description,  as 
weU  as  for  all  implements  of  steel  both  large  and  small.  In  this  work  the  simplest  and  most 
satisfactory  hardening  and  tempering  processes  are  given. 

The  uses  to  which  the  leading  brands  of  steel  may  be  adapted  are  concisely  presented,  and  their 
treatment  for  working  under  different  conditions  explained,  also  the  special  methods  for  the 
hardening  and  tempering  of  special  brands. 

A  chapter  devoted  to  the  different  processes  for  Case-hardening  is  also  included,  and  special 
reference  made  to  the  adoption  of  machinery  steel  for  tools  of  various  kinds.  4th  Edition.  288 
pages.     201  Illustrations.     Price $2.50 

28 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


TURBINES 

MARINE  STEAM  TURBINES.  By  Dr.  G.  Bauer  and  O.  Lasche.  Assisted  by 
E.  Ludwig  and  H.  Vogel.  Translated  from  the  German  and  edited  by  M.  G.  S. 
Swallow. 

This  work  forms  a  supplementary  volume  to  the  book  entitled  "  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers." 
The  authors  of  this  book,  Dr.  G.  Bauer  and  O.  Lasche,  may  be  regarded  as  the  leading 
authorities  on  turbine  construction. 

The  book  is  essentially  practical  and  discusses  turbines  in  which  the  full  expansion  of  steam 
passes  through  a  number  of  separate  turbines  arranged  for  driving  two  or  more  shafts,  as 
in  the  Parsons  system,  and  turbines  in  wliich  the  complete  expansion  of  steam  from  inlet 
to  exhaust  pressure  occurs  in  a  turbine  on  one  shaft,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Curtis  machines. 
It  will  enable  a  designer  to  carry  out  all  the  ordinary  calculations  necessary  for  the  con- 
struction of  steam  turbines,  hence  it  fills  a  want  which  is  hardly  met  by  larger  and  more 
theoretical  works. 

Numerous  tables,  curves  and  diagrams  will  be  found,  which  explain  with  remarkable  lucidity 
the  reason  why  turbine  blades  are  designed  as  they  are,  the  course  which  steam  takes  through 
turbines  of  various  types,  the  thermodynamics  of  steam  tiu-bine  calculation,  the  influence 
of  vacuum  on  steam  consumption  of  steam  tiu-bines,  etc.  In  a  word,  the  very  information 
which  a  designer  and  builder  of  steam  turbines  most  requires.  The  book  is  divided  into 
parts  as  follows:  1.  Introduction.  2.  General  remarks  on  the  design  of  a  turbine  installa- 
tion. 3.  The  calculation  of  steam  turbines.  4.  Turbine  design.  5.  Shafting  and  pro- 
pellers. 6.  Condensing  plant.  7.  Arrangement  of  turbines.  8.  General  remarks  on  the 
arrangement  of  steam  turbines  in  steamers.  9.  Turbine-driven  auxiliaries.  10.  Tables. 
Large  octavo.  214  pages.  Fully  illustrated  and  containing  18  tables.  Including  an  entropy 
chart.     Price,  net $3.60 

WATCH  MAKING 

WATCHMAKER'S   HANDBOOK.     By  Claudius  Saunier. 

This  famous  work  has  now  reached  its  seventh  edition  and  there  is  no  work  issued  that  can 
compare  to  it  for  clearness  and  completeness.  It  contains  498  pages  and  is  intended  as  a 
workshop  companion  for  those  engaged  in  Watch-making  and  allied  Mechanical  Arts.  Nearly 
250  engravings  and  fourteen  plates  are  included.     Price    ...  ....     $3.00 


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